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THE  UNITED  STATES 


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GEOGRAPHY  READERS— II 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


BY 

I.    O.    WINSLOW 


3^< 


BOSTON,    U.S.A. 

D.  C.  HEATH  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS 

1910 


WINSLOW'S 
GEOGRAPHY   READERS 

The  Earth  and  Its  People 

The  United  States 

Our  American  Neighbors 

Europe 

Distant  Countries 


Copyright,  1910,  by 
D.   C.    HEATH   &   CO. 

Education  lxbN 


6/7  < 


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W£. 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  this  series  is  to  occupy  middle  ground 
between  the  customary  text-books  and  geographical  readers, 
and  to  combine  the  essential  advantages  of  both. 

The  two  extremes,  whether  employed  separately  or  to- 
gether, fail  to  meet  the  practical  needs  of  the  average  school- 
room. The  text-books  adhere  to  the  scientific  method,  at  a 
sacrifice  of  the  practical  or  pedagogical  method.  The  teacher 
finds  it  difficult  either  to  assign  a  definite  lesson  for  study 
from  the  books  or  to  use  them  for  class  exercises  in  reading 
and  discussion.  In  their  completeness  the  text-books  con- 
tain so  much  that  selection  is  difficult,  and  the  attempt  to 
teach  the  whole  is  disastrous. 

Geographical  readers,  in  the  form  of  stories  of  travel, 
go  so  far  to  the  other  extreme  that  they  also  fall  outside 
of  the  daily  task  of  the  geography  teacher.  Courses  of 
study  very  properly  call  for  definite  concepts  and  facts. 
After  serious  attention  has  been  given  to  these,  there  is  but 
little  time  to  spare  in  the  regular  curriculum  for  lighter 
reading. 

There  is  need  of  books  that  shall  select  the  essentials  and 
set  them  forth  in  such  an  explicit  and  straightforward  man- 
ner that  they  may  be  easily  used,  both  for  preparatory  read- 
ing and  for  study  and  recitation.  It  is  the  design  of  these 
books  to  supply  that  want.  Since  they  occupy  a  unique 
position,  they  should  not  be  judged  according  to  existing 
standards,  but  according  to  practical  needs. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  second  book  and  the  remaining 
books  of  the   series   to  build  upon   the   foundation  laid  in 

iii 


iv  PREFACE 

Book  One,  and  to  complete  a  treatment  of  the  essentials 
of  an  elementary  course  in  geography.  Such  topics  as  have 
been  given  with  full  details  in  the  primary  book  are  omitted, 
or  briefly  mentioned,  or  treated  from  a  more  mature  stand- 
point, in  the  later  books. 

Unusual  attention  has  been  given  to  the  industrial  and 
commercial  aspects  of  the  subject,  in  the  belief  that  these 
are  of  fundamental  importance  and  of  natural  interest  to 
children.  The  fact  that  political  geography,  or  the  geog- 
raphy of  locations,  is  wrought  out  in  close  connection  with 
such  industrial  and  commercial  development  renders  it  more 
significant  and  more  easily  remembered. 

Topics  of  fundamental  importance  are  fully  explained  in 
the  text,  but  many  minor  points,  which  may  be  easily  ascer- 
tained or  inferred  by  pupils,  are  reserved  and  given  at  the 
end  of  each  chapter,  either  in  the  form  of  questions  or  brief 
statements  accompanied  by  questions.  These  exercises, 
supplemented  by  map  sketching  and  other  work  that  is 
here  and  there  suggested,  will  provide  definite  lessons  for 
the  study  period,  which  many  teachers  find  it  difficult  to 
arrange. 

The  review  questions  relate  to  principal  points  explained 
in  the  text,  and  may  be  employed  either  for  the  daily  assign- 
ment of  lessons  or  for  occasional  review.  It  is  believed  that 
these  questions,  together  with  the  exercises  given  in  connec- 
tion with  each  chapter,  include  as  much  as  pupils  of  ele- 
mentary grades  should  be  expected  to  learn. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

The  United  States        ..........  1 

The  Physical  Features 2 

Climate 6 

The  People 12 

The  Government 17 

The  Great  Glacier 21 

Effects  of  the  Ice  Sheet 26 

The  Northeastern  Section 80 

Manufacturing 80 

Agriculture 37 

Forests 43 

Fishing      .                  ..........  47 

Building  Stones 52 

Coal 57 

Iron 61 

Oil,  Gas,  and  Salt 65 

The  Ocean 70 

The  Atlantic  Coast 74 

Cities 77 

Interesting  Localities 83 

Review 87 

The  Southern  Section .         .         .91 

The  Physical  Features 91 

Cotton 97 

Rice  and  Sugar 102 

Forests 107 

Various  Products Ill 

Cities 115 

The  Central  Section 123 

The  Physical  Features 123 

The  Mississippi  River  System 129 

Wheat  and  Corn ,         .  134 

v 


vi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Livestock 139 

Various  Products 144 

Coal  and  Iron 148 

Other  Minerals 151 

Cities  near  the  Great  Lakes 156 

Cities  along  the  Rivers 160 

Review 164 

The  Western  Section 166 

Physical  Features  and  Climate 166 

The  People 173 

Mining 176 

Agriculture 180 

Forests I86 

Cities 191 

Interesting  Localities 107 

Review 202 

Appendix         ........••••  206 

Area  and  Population  of  States 206 

Population  of  Cities  of  over  35,000  .......  207 

Longest  Rivers  and  Highest  Mountains 209 

Index  and  Pronouncing  Vocabulary 210 


LIST   OF   MAPS 

United  States  {colored) Frontispiece 

PAGE 

North  America  {colored) facing        1 

Relief  Map  of  North  America 4 

Rainfall  of  North  America 8 

Path  of  a  Cyclone 11 

Map  showing  the  Southern  Limits  of  the  Great  Glacier  ....       25 

Northeastern  States  {colored) 32-33 

Lumber  Regions 42 

Fishing  Banks 48 

Map  showing  Coal  Areas 56 

Petroleum  Regions 66 

Southern  States  {colored) 92-93 

Cotton  Regions 98 

Central  States  {colored) 124-125 

Distribution  of  Cattle  in  the  United  States 140 

Western  States  {colored) 167 

Reclamation  Centers  of  the  West 184 

National  Forest  Reserves 190 

World  {colored) 205 


vii 


THE   UNITED   STATES 

The  subject  of  this  book  is  our  own  country.  The 
name  United  States  comes  from  the  fact  that  we  have 
many  separate  states  united  in  one.  Among  foreign 
people  our  country  has  been  known  as  the  United  States 
of  America,  but  it  is  becoming 
customary  to  use  the  briefer 
name  America  and  to  call  our 
people  the  American  people. 
This  name  is  from  that  of  Ameri- 
cus  Vespucius,  one  of  the  early 
explorers  of  our  coast.  It  is  a 
pity  that  the  country  did  not 
receive     the     name     Columbia 

r  , ,  £    m.    •  x      i  /^         Great  Seal  of  the  United  States 

irom    that    01    Christopher  Co- 
lumbus, who  was  the  first  explorer  to  cross  the  Atlantic, 
and  who  deserves  the  greater  honor. 

The  United  States  is,  in  many  respects,  the  most  inter- 
esting country  in  the  world.  It  should  certainly  be  of 
greatest  interest  to  us.  It  is  so  vast,  and  its  different 
parts  differ  so  greatly  from  one  another,  that  to  know  it 
well  is  to  know  much  of  the  subject  of  geography.  After 
we  understand  thoroughly  the  geography  of  the  United 
States,  it  will  be  easy  to  understand  the  geography  of 
the  remaining  countries  of  the  world. 

Our  country  occupies  the  best  part  of  the  continent 
of  North  America,  and  we  shall  begin  by  giving  some 
attention  to  the  entire  continent. 

1 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


i.    The  Physical  Features 

The  most  interesting  part  of  geography  is  that  which 
gives  us  a  knowledge  of  the  occupations  and  habits  of 
the  people  who  dwell  in  a  country.  But  we  should  also 
understand  why  the  people  live  where  they  do  and 
why  they  are  engaged  in  certain  occupations,  and  we 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Scene  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  North  Carolina 

shall  learn  much  about  these  reasons  by  a  study  of  the 
physical  features  and  the  climate. 

The  welfare  of  the  people  of  a  country  depends 
largely  upon  the  form  of  the  land  surface,  and  especially 
upon  the  height  of  its  different  regions  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Mountain  ranges  and  the  elevation  of  other 
regions  of  land  make  great  differences  in  temperature,  in 
winds,  and  in  the  amount  of  rain  and  snow. 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES 


North  America,  like  other  continents,  was  once  be- 
neath the  ocean  and  was  slowly  raised  above  the  water 
by  the  shrinking  and  wrinkling  of  the  earth's  crust.  In 
some  places  there  were  long  ridges,  and  these  became 
mountain  ranges.  Because  the  regions  that  are  crossed 
by  mountain  ranges  have  been  pressed  upward,  the  land 
near  the  mountains  is  generally  high  above  sea  level. 


Scene  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region 

In  some  places  the  hard  crust  was  broken  and  thrown 
up  in  ridges,  forming  an  uneven  surface.  In  others 
large  sections  were  raised  without  much  folding,  pro- 
ducing extensive  regions  of  comparatively  level  land  high 
above  the  sea.     A  region  of  this  kind  is  called  a  plateau. 

Two  great  highland  regions,  with  systems  of  moun- 
tain ranges,  extend  across  North  America.  In  the 
eastern  part  is  the  Eastern  Highland  and  the  Appa- 
lachian   system    of    mountains.       Across    the    Western 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


Highland  there  are  several  mountain  ranges,  the  loftiest 
of  which  is  the  Rocky  Mountain  system. 


PACIFIC 
OCEAN 


Relief  Map  of  North  America 

The  mountains  of  the  Appalachian  system  have  been 
worn    down    much    more    than   the   mountains   of    the 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES  5 

West.  The  highest  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  is 
not  much  more  than  a  mile  high,  while  some  of  the 
mountains  in  the  West  are  more  than  three  miles  high. 
In  some  places,  as  in  the  state  of  Maine,  the  mountains 
have  been  worn  away  until  only  low  hills  remain. 

North  of  the  United  States,  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Canada,  there  is  a  highland  of  less  importance,  called 
the  Laurentian  Plateau. 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

A  Prairie  Scene 

Southeast  of  the  Appalachians  the  land  slopes  toward 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  sec- 
tion is  called  the  Coastal  Plain.  In  the  central  part  of 
the  country  there  is  a  gentle  slope  from  the  mountains 
on  both  sides  toward  the  Mississippi  River.  This  sec- 
tion is  called  the  Great  Central  Plain.  Some  of  the 
most  nearly  level  parts  of  this  plain  are  called  prairies. 
A  more  elevated,  but  comparatively  level  section,  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  called  the  Great  Plains. 

1.  Give  the  names  of  the  different  mountain  ranges  in  the  western 
part  of  North  America.     (See  the  map  facing  page  1). 

2.  Which  of  these  is  farthest  east  ? 

3.  Give  the  names  of  six  large  rivers  in  North  America. 


6  THE   UNITED   STATES 

4.  Name  the  three  oceans  that  border  on  North  America. 

5.  Name  several  large  gulfs  and  bays. 

6.  What  large  island  is  east  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  ? 

7.  What  group  of  islands  is  east  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico? 

8.  Sketch  a  map  of  North  America,  showing  the  mountain  ranges,  the 
principal  rivers,  and  the  names  of  the  large  bodies  of  water  around  it. 

2.   Climate 

The  prevailing  weather,  or  climate,  of  a  country  has 
much  to  do  with  making  it  desirable  as  a  home  for  man. 
The  temperature,  the  motions  of  the  air  in  winds,  and 
the  amount  of  rain  are  matters  of  great  importance. 

The  air  has  weight  and  everywhere  presses  down 
against  the  earth.  Warm  air  is  lighter  than  cold  air. 
Hence,  whenever  a  body  of  air  at  any  place  on  the 
earth  becomes  warmer  than  another  body  near  it,  the 
heavier  cold  air  moves  under  the  lighter  warm  air  and 
forces  it  upward.  When  the  wind  blows,  a  body  of  air 
is  moving  toward  a  region  where  the  air  is  lighter. 

It  is  easy  to  think  of  illustrations  of  such  move- 
ments of  the  air.  Smoke  rises  from  a  fire  because  the 
hot  air  is  rising  and  carrying  the  particles  of  smoke  up- 
ward. There  is  a  good  illustration  in  breezes  at  the  sea- 
shore. In  warm  summer  days  the  surface  of  the  land 
becomes  warmer  than  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  On 
this  account  the  cooler  and  heavier  air  over  the  water 
moves  toward  the  land,  pressing  upward  the  warmer 
and  lighter  body  of  air.  At  night  the  reverse  is  true. 
After  the  sun  sets,  the  land  cools  faster  than  the  water 
and  the  air  moves  toward  the  sea. 

The  prevailing  winds  and  the  temperature  vary 
greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States.  In  the 
western  part  the  winds  generally  blow   over  the   land 


CLIMATE 


from  the  Pacific  Ocean.  These  winds  are  not  very  cold 
in  winter  and  not  very  warm  in  summer.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  ocean  changes  very  slowly  and  is  not  much 
lower  in  winter  than  in  summer.  The  surface  of  the 
water  is  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in  summer  than 
the  surface  of  the  land.  Hence  the  winds  on  the  Pacific 
coast  make  the  temperature  in  winter  and  summer  much 
more  even  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 


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Winter  Scene  in  Southern  California 

Across  the  entire  northern  part  of  the  United  States 
the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  west,  but  as  the  land 
over  which  they  blow  becomes  cold  in  winter  and 
warm  in  summer  there  is  a  corresponding  difference  in 
the  temperature  of  the  air,  hence  these  winds  tend  to 
increase  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  country. 

In  the  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States  the  winds 
are  variable.     At  all  times,  except  in  the  hot  midsum- 


8 


THE    UNITED    STATES 


mer,  the  west  winds  are  generally  cool.  But  sometimes 
the  wind  blows  over  the  land  from  the  southeast  or 
south,  bringing  warm  air  from  the  ocean  or  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  Sometimes  it  blows  from  the  norths  it, 
bringing  chilly  air  from  the  colder  water  farther  north. 
Over  the  Great  Central  Plain,  where  there  are  few 
mountains  or  hills  to  check  its  force,  the  wind 
sometimes    blows    violently.      The    air    moves    easily 

north  and  south, 


air  into  the  cold- 
er regions  aud 
colder  air  into 
the  warmer  re- 
gions, thus  mak- 
ing the  cold  of 
winter  and  the 
heat  of  summer 
less  severe. 

W  herever 
water  is  exposed 
to  dry  air  some 
of  it  evaporates.  This  means  that  the  water  changes 
to  invisible  vapor  and  passes  into  the  air.  After  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  moisture  has  mingled  with  the  air,  the 
process  of  evaporation  cannot  continue.  In  warm  air, 
however,  there  may  be  more  moisture  in  invisible  form 
than  in  cold  air.  When  a  body  of  air  filled  with  moisture 
cools,  some  of  the  moisture  collects  in  tiny  drops.  This 
form  is  called  fog,  or  mist,  or  a  cloud.  When  moisture 
enough  collects  in  this  manner,  raindrops,  snowflakes, 
or  hailstones,  are  produced. 


CLIMATE 


The  air  gathers  some  moisture  from  the  land,  but- 
more  from  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  As  the  wind 
blows,  the  air  is  carried  from  the  ocean  over  the  land, 
and  when  it  is  cooled,  rain  falls.  If  there  were  no  wind 
to  bring  moisture  from  the  sea,  there  would  be  but  little 
rain  on  the  land,  and  every  country  would  be  a  desert. 

The  air  may  be  cooled  enough  to  cause  rain  by  rising 
from  the  earth  into  colder  regions  above,  by  passing 
over  mountains,  or  bv  mingling  with  other  colder  cur- 


Winter  Scene  in  Northern  New  England 

rents  of  air.  Rain  may  fall  from  the  air  in  showers 
when  a  body  of  moist  air  becomes  heated  and  rises  into 
cooler  regions,  as  in  the  afternoon  of  a  warm  day. 

In  the  northwestern  part  of  the  United  States  west 
winds  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  bring  an  abundant  supply 
of  moisture.  As  the  air  is  cooled  when  it  is  raised  to  a 
higher  altitude  in  crossing  the  mountains,  a  large  amount 
of  rain  falls.     After  the  air  has  crossed  the  mountains. 


10 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


it  is  drier  and  is  not  often  cooled  enough  to  produce  much 
rain.     Hence  the  climate  is  dry  east  of  the  mountains. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  much  moisture  is 
brought  by  winds  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  As  the  Appa- 
lachian Moun- 
tains are  not 
very  high,  the 
air  in  passing 
over  them  is 
not  cooled 
enough  to  con- 
dense a  great 
amount  of  its 
moisture,  and 
much  is  car- 
ried to  the 
region  west  of 
the  moun- 
tains. In  the 
central  part  of 
the  country 
the     moisture 


A  small  Western  Cyclone 


is  increased  by  winds  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Most  of  the  rain  in  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of 
the  United  States  occurs  in  cyclonic  storms.  These 
storms  usually  commence  in  either  the  northwestern  or 
the  southern  part  of  the  country  and  move  to  the  east 
or  the  northeast.  Sometimes  they  continue  across  the 
ocean  to  Europe.  Occasionally  a  storm  begins  in  the 
West  Indies  and  moves  first  northwest,  then  northeast, 
over  a  section  of  the  country  near  the  Atlantic  coast. 


CLIMATE 


11 


The  air  in  the  center  of  a  cyclonic  storm  is  rising,  and 
the  air  everywhere  round  about  moves  toward  the  center 
and  whirls  about  it  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of 
the  hands  of  a  clock.  When  a  storm  is  approaching, 
the  wind  usually  blows  from  the  southeast,  east,  or 
northeast.  After  the  storm  center  passes,  the  wind 
is  usually  from  the  north,  northwest,  or  west. 


THE  PATH  OF  A  CYCLOX 

showing  the  location  of  the  Center 
on  successive  days. 


A  cyclonic  storm  may  cover  so  large  an  area  as  to 
produce  rain  at  the  same  time  over  a  region  a  thousand 
miles  wide.  There  may  be  two  or  more  storm  centers 
over  the  country  at  the  same  time.  A  weather  map 
shows  where  storm  centers  are  located,  the  directions 
of  winds,  the  pressure  of  the  air,  and  the  temperature 
in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

The  Weather  Bureau  of  the  United  States  has  stations 
scattered  over  the  country  from  which  reports  are 
frequently  received.  From  these  reports  is  made  a 
forecast  of  what  the  weather  will  probably  be  for  the  fol- 
lowing day  or  two.  The  work  of  the  Weather  Bureau 
is  of  great  convenience  and  value  to  millions  of  people. 


12  THE   UNITED   STATES 

By  the  annual  rainfall  of  a  region  is  meant  the  amount 
of  rain,  snow,  and  hail  that  falls  in  that  region  in  a  year. 
It  is  expressed  in  inches  of  depth.  When  we  say  that 
a  certain  region  has  a  rainfall  of  twenty  inches,  we  mean 
that  if  all  the  rain  that  falls  in  that  region  for  a  year, 
together  with  all  the  melted  snow  and  hail,  should  re- 
main upon  the  surface  of  level  land,  it  would  be  twenty 
inches  deep.  In  the  state  of  Washington,  on  the  west- 
ern slopes  of  the  mountains,  the  annual  rainfall  is  more 
than  a  hundred  inches,  but  there  are  regions  east  of 
the  mountains  where  it  is  not  more  than  five  inches. 
Wherever  the  rainfall  is  less  than  twenty  inches,  the 
climate  is  considered  too  dry  to  produce  farm  crops. 

1.  Why  will  a  piece  of  paper  rise  when  placed  over  the  chimney  of  a 
burning  lamp? 

2.  Why  is  the  west  wind  warmer  in  summer  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country  than  in  the  western  part  ? 

3.  Why  is  there  usually  less  snow  upon  the  ground  in  winter  near  the 
seacoast  than  in  places  at  a  distance  from  the  coast  ? 

4.  Why  are  there  often  clouds  around  mountains  when  the  air  is  clear 
on  the  lowlands? 

5.  Why  is  the  air  more  clear  and  dry  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country 
when  the  wind  blows  from  the  west  than  when  it  blows  from  the  east  ? 

6.  What  would  be  the  effect  upon  the  rainfall  of  the  United  States  if 
the  wind  never  blew  in  any  other  direction  than  from  the  west? 

7.  If  the  Appalachian  Mountains  were  much  higher  than  they  are, 
what  effect  would  this  have  upon  the  amount  of  rain  in  the  central 
and  eastern  parts  of  the  country? 

3.    The  People 

The  Indians,  who  inhabited  the  United  States  before 
the  white  settlers  came,  were  of  different  classes.  Many 
of  them  roamed  about  from  place  to  place,  hunting,  fish- 
ing,  and   fighting.     Others  lived  in   villages,  and  the 


THE   PEOPLE 


13 


women  and  children  raised  a  little  corn  and  tobacco, 
while  the  men  went  away  to  hnnt  or  engage  in  war. 

In  the  southwestern  part  of  the  country  there  lived 
a  few  Indians  who  were  much  more  nearly  civilized. 
Besides  cultivating  the  land,  they  made  articles  from 
gold  and  silver,  and  pottery  from  clay,  and  knew  how 
to  weave  blankets. 

As  white  people  settled  the 
country  farther  toward  the 
west  they  conquered  all  the 
tribes  of  Indians  and  took 
them  into  their  charge.  The 
United  States  Government 
has  placed  the  Indians  on 
lands  set  aside  for  the  purpose 
in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. These  lands  are  called 
Indian  reservations.  This 
arrangement  is  really  no 
hardship  for  the  Indians. 
They  are  simply  deprived  of 
the  privilege  of  wandering 
over  the  country  and  hunting  and  fighting  whenever 
they  choose.  The  amount  of  land  in  the  Indian  reser- 
vations may  seem  small,  but  their  number  is  very  small 
in  comparison  with  the  population  of  the  country.  All 
the  Indians  of  the  country  together  would  amount  to 
less  than  one  half  as  many  people  as  there  are  in  the 
city  of  Boston.  There  will  be  land  enough  for  all  of 
them  upon  their  reservations  when  they  learn  to  culti- 
vate the  soil  and  to  live  as  white  people  do. 


Kiowa  Squaw,  Papoose,  and 
Teepee 


14  THE    UNITED   STATES 

Nearly  one  third  of  all  the  Indians  of  the  country 
live  in  the  state  of  Oklahoma.  This  state  was  once 
called  Indian  Territory  because  a  large  part  of  it  was 
occupied  by  tribes  of  Indians.  Many  white  people  set- 
tled among  the  Indians  and  many  white  men  married 
Indian  wives.  The  Indians  gradually  adopted  the 
habits  of  civilized  life,  and  they  were  finally  induced  to 
give  up  their  tribal  customs  and  to  divide  their  land 


Sioux  Indian  Camp 

into  separate  farms.  The  territory  afterwards  became 
a  state  and  the  Indian  inhabitants  became  American 
citizens. 

There  are  small  Indian  reservations  in  Maine,  New 
York,  and  Florida,  and  larger  ones  in  the  western  part 
of  the  country. 

Formerly  the  Government  supplied  all  the  Indians 
with  food  and  clothing.  Now  they  do  not  receive  sup- 
plies, but  are  assisted  in  finding  work  to  do  instead. 
At  some  time  probably  all  the  Indians  will  learn  to  live 
upon  farms  and  support  themselves. 

The  French  people  who  once  settled  in  Canada  went 
down  the  Mississippi  River  to  its  mouth  and  took  pos- 


THE   PEOPLE 


15 


session  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.     They  called  the  region 
Louisiana  in  honor  of  their  French  King  Louis. 

The  Spaniards,  who  gained  possession  of  Mexico,  in- 
cluded in  their  territory  a  section  of  what  is  now  the 
western  part  of  the  United  States,  extending  as  far 
north  as  San  Francisco.  The  present  state  of  Texas  also 
was  once  a  part  of  Mexico. 


Old  Mission  built  by  the  Spaniards 
San  Fernando,  Calif. 

The  English  at  first  had  only  a  narrow  section  be- 
tween the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  the  coast.  The 
settlements  there  were  colonies  of  Great  Britain,  but 
they  gained  their  independence  in  the  war  of  the  Revo- 
lution and  afterwards  succeeded  in  getting  possession 
of  the  whole  country  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

There  are  now  many  other  people  in  this  country  be- 
sides the  Indians,  the  English,  and  the  French  and 
Spanish  who  first  settled  here. 

Negroes  were  first  brought  from  Africa  to  Virginia  as 
slaves  in  the  year  1619.  Afterwards  large  numbers 
were  brought  to  work  on  plantations  in  the  Southern 
States,  where  cotton,  sugar,  and  rice  are  raised.     The 


16 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


were  made   free   by  the  Civil  War.     Most  of 
them   still  live  in  the  South,  but  some  have  gone  to 

the  states  in  the  North 
and  the  West.  There 
are  now  over  nine 
million  colored  peo- 
ple in  the  country. 

A  large  number 
of  immigrants  have 
come  to  the  United 
States  from  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  and 
some  Chinese,  Jap- 
anese, and  others, 
from  Asia.  There  is 
room  enough  for  all, 
and  the  people  of  this 
country  are  willing  to 
receive  as  many  as 
will  become  good  cit- 
izens, but  we  have  laws  which  forbid  the  admission  of 
criminals  and  paupers  and  other  undesirable  people. 

1.  The  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  contains  nearly  nine  tenths 
of  the  people  of  the  country.     Give  reasons  for  this. 

2.  At  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  there  were  about  four 
million  people  in  the  country.     Where  did  most  of  them  live? 

3.  Why  are  many  of  the  people  of  Texas  of  Spanish  descent? 

4.  La  Salle  raised  the  banner  of  France  at  the  mouth  of  the  Missis- 
sippi in  the  year  1682.     How  long  ago  was  that? 

5.  The    Indians  had  no  domestic    animals  such  as  horses  or  oxen. 
How  did  this  fact  make  it  more  difficult  for  them  to  cultivate  the  land? 

6.  There  are  about  285,000  Indians  in   the   United  States.     About 
how  many  other  people  are  there  for  every  Indian? 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwo 

Immigrants  landing  at  Ellis   Island, 
New  York 


THE   GOVERNMENT 


17 


4.    The  Government 

We  have  reason  to  be  proud  of  the  government  of 
the  United  States.  There  is  no  other  country  in  which 
the  attempt  to  give  all  the  citizens  a  right  to  take  part 
in  managing  public  affairs  has  been  so  successful. 

The  people  of  the  United  States  have  been  glad  to  ex- 
pend large  sums  of  money  for  the  education  of  all  the 


The  Capitol  at  Washington 

children  in  public  schools.  This  is  not  only  to  benefit 
the  children,  but  also  because  without  such  general  edu- 
cation it  would  be  impossible  for  our  government  to 
continue. 

The  first  colonists  from  England  came  in  com- 
panies and  settled  at  different  places  along  the  Atlan- 
tic coast.  The  people  of  each  company  chose  a 
simple  government,  adopting  forms  to  which  they  had 
been  accustomed  in  England.  Some  of  the  companies 
that  settled  on  the  New  England  coast  were  parts  of 
church  congregations  who,  with  their  pastors,  had  left 


18 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


England  because  they  were  not  satisfied  with  the  way 
in  which  church  affairs  were  managed.  In  this  country 
the  members  of  each  congregation  naturally  wished  to 
live  near  each  other  in  order  that  they  might  be  able  to 
attend  the  same  church. 

Another  reason  why  these  early  settlers  made  their 
homes  so  near  together  was  that  but  little  of  the  land 

was  good  for 
agriculture. 
On  this  ac- 
count there 
were  no  large 
plantations. 
The  families  of 
a  community 
lived  close  to- 
gether, each 
one  cultivating 
only  enough 
land  to  supply  its  wants.  By  living  in  this  way  they 
were  also  better  able  to  defend  themselves  against  the 
Indians. 

It  was  natural  that  these  communities  should  select 
a  form  of  government  similar  to  that  of  the  parishes 
in  England.  They  organized  what  have  been  known 
since  that  time  as  towns  or  townships. 

Those  who  settled  in  Virginia  and  along  the  coast 
farther  south  found  it  profitable  to  engage  in  farming  on 
large  plantations.  This  made  their  homes  more  scat- 
tered than  those  of  the  settlers  farther  north,  and  they 
naturally  adopted  the  county  form  of  government,  which 
applies  to  a  larger  extent  of  territory  than  the  township. 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Old  Town  Hall  at  Marblehead,  Mass. 


THE   GOVERNMENT 


19 


In  the  states  farther  west  that  were  mostly  settled  at 
first  by  New  England  people  the  township  form  of  govern- 
ment was  generally  adopted.  In  others  counties  were  at 
first  established.  As  the  country  has  become  more  fully 
settled,  counties  have  been  formed  by  uniting  several 
towns  under  a  county  government ;  and  where  counties 
were  at  first  formed,  many  of  these  have  been  divided 
into  smaller  parts  with  separate  township  governments. 

Wherever  the  number  of  inhabitants  of  any  town 
becomes 


that 


so 
the 


■•X\j'  \  \\\j 

4  '  - 

K  -  'W| 

\  lA'Jv 

Nft  ^  ) 

I      \  M  f  I 

fsjE 

&/     YKV 

cv  /  W(y 

Pfj| 

i  •  f 

— „._ 

En r 

[If.  S 

Si-L's: 

large 

town  govern- 
ment is  unsuit- 
able, a  city 
government  is 
adopted. 

We       have 
thus  five  forms 

Of  gOVernment,  Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishmg  Co. 

applying  to  the  01d  County  Court  House  at  Portsmouth>  Va- 
township,  the  city,  the  county,  the  state,  and  the 
nation.  Matters  that  concern  the  interests  of  the 
nation  as  a  whole,  and  that  could  not  be  so  well 
managed  in  the  smaller  localities,  are  in  the  charge 
of  the  national  government.  Other  affairs  are  managed 
by  the  governments  of  the  separate  states.  Still  other 
affairs  are  left  to  the  people  of  the  counties,  the  cities, 
and  the  towns,  with  their  local  forms  of  government. 

The  capital  city  of  the  whole  country  is  Washington, 
in  the  District  of  Columbia.  The  President  resides  in 
Washington,  in  a  house  called  the  White   House,  and 


20 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


the  senators  and  representatives  from  all  the  states  meet 
in  the  Capitol  Building  to  make  laws  for  the  country. 

The  District  of  Columbia  is  not  a  part  of  any  state, 
but  belongs  to  the  whole  nation.    The  city  of  Washing- 


\ 

HLR  u  ittw! 

*— :                   ^*^[ 

^^H^^^^^^^^y^                        ^U 

feMflflfl 

The  White  House  and  the  President' s  Office 

ton  was  selected  by  George  Washington  for  the  national 
capital  at  a  time  when  it  was  only  a  village.  At  that 
time  there  were  no  states  except  those  along  the  At- 
lantic coast,  and  Washington  was  in  nearly  a  central 
location. 


1.  Why  would  it  be  a  poor  plan  to  have  no  form  of  government  ex- 
cept the  national  government  ? 

2.  Why  would  it  not  be  so  well  to  have  state  governments,  without 
any  national  government? 

3.  What  would  be  the  difficulty  in  a  time  of  war  if  there  were  no 
national  government? 

4.  Why  would  it  not  be   so  well  for  each  state  to  take  charge  of 
carrying  the  mail,  instead  of  the  national  government? 

5.  Why  would  it  not  be  so  well  for  each  state  to  make  the  money  to 
be  used  by  its  own  people? 


THE   GREAT   GLACIER 


21 


6.  Why  is  it  not  necessary  that  the  capital  city  of  each  state  should  be 
the  largest  city  of  that  state  ? 

7.  Between  what  states  is  the  District  of  Columbia  ? 


Glaciers  forming  at  the  Summit  of  the  Cascade  Range 


5.   The  Great  Glacier 

There  are  many  things  connected  with  the  geogra- 
phy of  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  that 
we  cannot  understand  until  we  know  the  story  of  the 
Great  Glacier,  or  Ice  Sheet,  which  once  covered  that 
part  of  the  country.  We  know  that  there  must  have 
been  such  a  glacier  because  the  effects  that  we  see  are 
precisely  like  those  produced  by  glaciers  at  the  present 
time. 

In  temperate  regions  of  North  America  the  snow  that 
falls  upon  the  ground  in  winter  melts  away  as  soon  as 
the  weather  becomes  warm.     Farther  north,  where  the 


22 


THE    UNITED   STATES 


winters  are  longer,  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow 
for  a  greater  part  of  the  year.  Still  farther  north  so 
much  snow  falls  in  the  long  winter,  and  the  summer  is 
so  short,  that  there  is  not  time  for  all  the  snow  to  be 
melted,  and  the  ground  is  always  covered. 

On  the  tops  of  high  mountains  in  temperate  regions 
it  is  as  cold  as  in  the  far  north.     Since  there  is  not 


Moraine  left  by  an  Oregon  Glacier 


warm  weather  enough  on  these  mountains  to  melt  as 
much  snow  as  falls  in  the  colder  weather,  the  snow  be- 
comes deeper  and  deeper  and  by  its  great  weight  is 
pressed    into  masses  of  ice. 

These  masses,  which  are  called  glaciers,  do  not  re- 
main at  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  but  slowly  move 
down  the  mountain  sides  and  along  the  valleys.  Some 
glaciers  appear  like  great  rivers  of  ice.  Their  motion, 
however,  amounts  to  only  a  few  inches  or  a  few  feet  in 
a  day.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  a  glacier  can 
move  at  all  and  yet  move  so  slowly.    But  we  know  that 


THE   GREAT   GLACIER 


23 


even  on  level  ground  a  very  deep  mass  of  ice  would  grad- 
ually become  flattened  and  its  edges  pressed  out  in  vari- 
ous directions.  In  a  similar  manner  a  piece  of  soft  wax 
is  slowly  flattened  and  spread  out  when  a  weight  is  placed 
upon  it. 


A  Glacier  in  Alaska 

As  a  glacier  moves  along  over  the  rock  of  a  mountain 
it  is  so  heavy  and  presses  with  such  great  force  that  it 
breaks  off  and  drags  along  pieces  of  rock,  grinding  them 
into  smaller  pieces  and  grinding  the  rock  beneath  into 
sand  or  soil. 

When  the  ice  has  been  pushed  down  the  mountain  to 
a  region  where  the  weather  is  warm  enough,  it  is  melted, 
and  the  water  flows  away  to  form  brooks  and  rivers. 
At  points  where  this  occurs  the  soil  and  rocks  that  were 
in  the  ice  are  left  in  a  mass,  called  a  moraine,  or  are 
washed  farther  down  by  streams  of  water. 


24  THE   UNITED   STATES 

In  some  places  along  the  coast  far  to  the  north  the 
weather  is  not  warm  enough  to  melt  the  front  of  a 
glacier  before  it  reaches  the  ocean.  The  front  is  slowly 
pushed  out  into  the  water  and  from  time  to  time  great 
pieces  break  off  and  float  away  until  they  are  melted. 
Such  floating  masses  of  ice  are  called  icebergs. 


An  Iceberg 

Nearly  the  whole  of  Greenland  is  covered  with  an 
immense  glacier.  In  the  central  part  the  ice  is  piled 
up  thousands  of  feet  deep.  This  ice  moves  slowly  to- 
ward the  coast.  In  the  southern  part  of  Greenland,  in 
the  summer  season,  the  ice  is  melted  before  it  reaches 
the  ocean  and  there  is  a  little  bare  ground,  but  else- 
where the  ice  is  pushed  out  into  the  sea  and  breaks 
off  in  icebergs,  some  of  which  are  hundreds  of  feet 
wide.  These  float  away  in  the  ocean  to  the  south, 
where  the  water  is  warm  enough  to  melt  them. 

Thousands  of  years  ago  there  was  a  period  of  time 
when  the  climate  of  North  America  was  colder  than  it 


THE   GEEAT   GLACIER 


25 


is  now.  In  .parts  of  the  country  where  the  snow  now 
melts  in  the  spring,  it  was  then  so  cold  that  the  snow 
accumulated  and  formed  an  immense  glacier  like  that 
which  covers  Greenland.  It  reached  across  what  is  now 
Canada  and  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States. 
This  vast  sheet  of  ice  slowly  but  constantly  moved  to- 


Map  showing  the  Southern  Limits  of  the  Great  Glacier 

ward  the  south  until  the  front  edge  reached  a  climate 
warm  enough  to  melt  it  away  as  fast  as  it  was  pushed 
along.  The  time  when  this  occurred  is  called  the  Ice 
Age  or  the  Glacial  Period. 

1.  Why  do  glaciers  in  cold  countries  extend  as  far  as  the  sea,  while 
those  in  warm  countries  do  not  ? 

2.  There  are  many  small  glaciers  in  the   Rocky  Mountains.     Why 
are  there  none  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains? 

3.  Why  does  muddy  water  flow  from  the  front  of  a  glacier? 

4.  Why  is  it  dangerous  for  vessels  to  sail  where  there  are  icebergs? 

5.  II ow  can  we  tell  by  the  scratches  on  rocks  in  what  direction  the 
Great  Glacier  moved? 


26  THE   UNITED   STATES 

6.  Why  are  these  scratches  parallel  to  each  other? 

7.  Give  the  names  of  the  states  across  which  the  front  edge  of  the 
Great  Ice  Sheet  extended. 

8.  Make  a  map  of  the  United  States,  showing  the  line  of  the  front  of 
the  Great  Glacier  at  the  time  when  it  extended  farthest  south. 


Island  in  Puget  Sound,  rounded  by  a  Glacier 

6.    Effects  of  the  Ice  Sheet 

The  Great  Ice  Sheet  made  many  wonderful  changes 
in  the  northern  part  of  our  country.  Some  of  these 
changes  are  of  great  benefit  to  the  present  inhabitants 
and  some  are  a  disadvantage. 

Many  of  the  hills  of  the  country  were  formed  by  the 
ice.  In  some  places  the  soil  and  rocks  under  the  ice  be- 
came heaped  up,  and  as  the  ice  moved  over  such  masses 
it  formed  smoothly  rounded  hills.  There  are  many  such 
hills  in  the  state  of  Massachusetts  and  in  other  regions 
which  were  covered  by  the  ice. 

In  places  along  the  front  or  beneath  the  front  of  the 
ice,  where  it  melted  away  as  it  moved  forward,  the  drift 
was  piled  up  in  deep  masses.  Streams  from  the  melting 
ice  washed  out  valleys  in  this  moraine  and  carried  some 
of  the  drift  a  long  distance.     Many  hills  in  the  south- 


EFFECTS   OF  THE  ICE   SHEET 


27 


eastern  part  of  New  England,  and  some  islands  near 
the  coast,  are  parts  of  the  moraine  of  the  Great  Glacier. 

As  the  climate  gradually  became  warmer  the  front  of 
the  ice  sheet  melted  faster  than  it  moved  forward  and 
left  the  ground  covered  with  drift.  On  this  account 
much  of  the  soil  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States 
consists  of  glacial  drift. 

In  some  of  the  regions  that  were  covered  with  ice 
there  are  many  rocks  of  various  sizes,  with  edges  and 
corners  worn  away.     Some  of  these  lie  upon  the  soil ; 


Pasture  Boulders  left  by  a  Glacier 

others  are  buried  in  it.  Because  these  rocks  are  unlike 
the  rock  under  the  soil  in  the  locations  where  they  are 
found  we  know  that  they  must  have  been  carried  to 
their  present  positions  from  other  regions.  It  has  been 
found  that  they  must  have  been  brought  by  the  Great 
Glacier  from  regions  farther  north.  Large  rocks  of  this 
kind  are  called  boulders. 


28 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


Streams  that  flow  into  ponds  and  lakes  are  constantly 
depositing  soil.  After  a  long  time  the  ponds  and  lakes 
are  entirely  filled  with  soil,  and  become  level  land  with 
streams  flowing  through  it.  We  may  be  sure  that  those 
which  have  not  yet  been  filled  are  not  very  old. 

Most  of  the  ponds  and  lakes  of  the  country  were  caused 
by  the  Ice  Sheet.     Although  the  many  thousand  years 


Pond  made  by  a  Glacier 


that  have  passed  since  the  ice  melted  seem  like  a  very 
long  period  of  time,  it  is  really  a  very  short  time  in 
comparison  with  the  millions  of  years  that  have  passed 
since  the  continent  itself  was  formed. 

In  some  places  the  ice  scraped  out  basins  in  the  soil 
or  the  rock,  and  in  others  it  piled  up  drift  across  valleys, 
forming  basins  which  were  filled  by  valley  streams. 

Many  rivers  were  turned  out  of  their  old  courses  and 
caused  to  flow  elsewhere.  This  was  because  the  old 
courses  were  filled  with  drift  so  that  the  water  could  no 
longer  flow  through  them. 


EFFECTS    OF   THE   ICE   SHEET 


29 


These  changes  were  the  cause  of  most  of  our  water- 
falls. As  we  know  that  our  ponds  and  lakes  are  not 
very  old,  we  also  know 
that  the  waterfalls 
must  have  been  caused 
by  some  change  that 
took  place  not  very 
long  ago.  The  preci- 
pice over  which  the 
water  flows  at  any 
waterfall  is  constantly 
worn  away.  After  a 
long  time  it  will  either 
become  a  long  slope  in 
the  bed  of  the  stream 
or  will  disappear  alto- 
gether. Many  of  the 
brooks  and  rivers  that  Waterfa11  and  Precipice 

flowed  across  the  country  in  new  courses  after  the  ice 
melted,  dashed  over  steep  slopes  and  precipices,  and 
thus  new  waterfalls  were  formed. 

1.  Why  do  not  the  hills  that  have  been  formed  by  the  ice  consist 
of  solid  rock  in  the  center,  like  other  hills  and  mountains? 

2.  Why  is  some  of  the  soil  that  was  produced  by  the  Great  Glacier 
now  found  in  regions  farther  south  than  those  that  were  covered  with  ice? 

3.  Why  are  not  large  rocks  found  in  the  glacial  drift  that  was  carried 
farther  south  than  the  ice  extended  ? 

4.  What  will  probably  become  of  the  thousands  of  ponds  and  lakes  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  country  after  a  very  long  time? 

5.  What  will  become  of  the  waterfalls? 

6.  Why  are  there  not  many  ponds  and  lakes  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  United  States? 

7.  Why  are  there  not  many  loose  rocks  in  the  soil  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  country? 


30  THE   UNITED   STATES 

THE   NORTHEASTERN   SECTION 
7.    Manufacturing 

Our  country  is  so  large  and  its  parts  differ  so  widely 
from  one  another  in  respect  to  climate,  the  nature  of 
the  land,  and  the  occupations  of  the  people,  that  it  is 
best  to  think  of  it  as  divided  into  separate  sections  and 
to  study  each  section  by  itself. 

We  naturally  begin  with  the  Northeastern  Section 
because  that  was  first  settled  by  white  people.  The 
descendants  of  the  early  settlers,  although  they  are  now 
scattered  over  all  parts  of  the  country,  have  a  feeling 
of  respect  for  old  New  England  and  the  other  states  of 
the  Northeast. 

Portions  of  a  number  of  states  southwest  of  the  New 
England  States  are  similar  to  the  latter  in  physical  fea- 
tures, climate,  and  occupations.  It  is  convenient  to  in- 
clude these  in  our  treatment  of  the  Northeastern  Section, 
which  we  may  regard  as  consisting  of  the  six  New  Eng- 
land States  together  with  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia. 

This  is  one  of  the  great  manufacturing  regions  of  the 
world.  Thickly  scattered  over  it  are  towns  and  cities, 
many  of  whose  inhabitants  work  in  mills  or  factories. 

From  what  we  have  learned  about  the  Ice  Sheet  it  is 
easy  to  understand  that  its  effects  have  been  one  of  the 
chief  causes  of  so  much  manufacturing  in  a  large  part 
of  this  section.  By  changing  the  courses  of  many 
rivers  it  produced  waterfalls  and  hence  water  power 
for  the  mills. 


MANUFACTURING 


31 


Ponds  and  lakes  also,  which  were  caused  by  the  ice, 
are  of  great  assistance.  Ihey  serve  as  reservoirs  to 
hold  back  a  supply  of  water.  If  there  were  no  ponds, 
a  large  part  of  the  water  from  heavy  rains  and  melting 
snows  would  run  into  the  streams  at  once  and  flow 
away  to  the  ocean.  In  a  short  time  the  water  in  the 
streams    would   be   low   and    the    water    power   would 


Mills  run  by  Water  Power 

be  small.  When  the  water  runs  first  into  ponds,  it 
afterwards  runs  gradually  out  into  the  streams,  and  so 
there  is  a  supply  of  water  for  the  mills. 

The  amount  of  water  held  back  in  ponds  is  often  in- 
creased by  dams  built  across  the  outlet.  The  water  is 
allowed  to  pass  through  the  dams  as  it  is  needed,  and 
keeps  the  mills  running  through  periods  of  dry  weather. 

The  people  who  settled  along  the  shore  of  the  country 
in  the  early  times  made  most  of  the  articles  that  they 


Bfi 


Lon  g  itude S0°  AY  est 


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Cahton 


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Rome  Q; ' 

-ZjSvTvI  Saralbga 

U"o*n     Springs, 


MAS 


St.Alban^ 
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Rochester 


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™$U  .     \\  DELAWARE 


NORTHEASTERN  STATES 

Capitals  of  Countries:    @ 
Capitals  of  States:  ®       Other  Cities:  i 
Principal  Railroad  Lines: 

0  25  50  100  150  200 

I I I I I I 

Scale  of  Miles 


THE    M.-N.    WORKS. 


34 


THE    UNITED   STATES 


needed  by  hand  work  at  home.  Very  soon,  however, 
they  began  to  build  small  mills  by  the  waterfalls, 
to  grind  grain  and  to  saw  lumber  for  buildings. 

For  clothing,  wool  or  flax  was  raised.  It  was  spun 
into  yarn,  and  woven  into  cloth,  by  the   women    and 

girls    of    each 
household. 

After  a  time 
machines  were 
invented  in 
England  by 
which  the  yarn 
could  be  spun 
and  cloth  could 
be  woven  much 
more  rapidly 
than  by  hand, 
and  factories 
were  built  for 
this  purpose  in 
America,  like 
those  in  England.  Since  that  time  many  woolen  mills 
have  been  built  beside  waterfalls,  along  the  rivers. 

Small  mills  for  weaving  cotton  cloth  were  first  built 
in  Rhode  Island.  Since  these  were  successful  and  cotton 
could  be  obtained  from  the  South,  many  large  mills  have 
been  built  in  different  parts  of  New  England. 

The  people  of  this  section  have  learned,  by  years 
of  experience,  to  manufacture  various  articles  with 
skill  and  profit.  They  have  continually  built  new 
mills,  and  manufactured  vast  quantities  of  goods. 


An  Old-fashioned  Loom 


MANUFACTURING 


35 


In  many  places,  where  there  is  not  sufficient  water 
power,  mills  are  run  by  steam  power,  produced  by 
burning  coal.  Besides  goods  from  cotton,  wool,  iron, 
and  lumber,  many  other  articles  are  manufactured  in  this 
section,  such  as  boots  and  shoes,  and  jewelry  and  other 
articles  from  the  different  metals.     It  does  not  require 


|NUJIJHP&33«t 


Courtesy  of  Regal  Shoe  Co. 

Cutting  Room  in  a  Shoe  Factory 

much  power  for  manufacturing  many  of  these  things. 
The  work  could  be  done  as  well  in  other  parts  of  the 
country,  but  the  people  of  this  section  are  so  much 
interested  in  manufacturing  that  they  are  inclined  to 
produce  articles  of  many  different  kinds. 

The  mills  have  given  this  section  a  dense  population. 
A  large  mill  employs  hundreds  of  persons,  and  when 
we  consider  that  usually  only  one  or  two  persons  from 
each  family  work  in  the  mills,  we  can  readily  see 
that  there  may  be  families  enough  supported  by  even  a 
single  mill  to  make  a  town  of  considerable  size. 


36 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


The  New  England  States  and  other  states  in  the  North- 
east are  small  in  comparison  with  the  states  of  the  West, 

but  when  the  num- 


ber of  people  and 
the  amount  of  prop- 
erty that  they  pos- 
sess are  taken  into 
account,  the  case 
is  quite  different. 
California,  for  ex- 
ample, is  more  than 
nineteen  times  as 
large  as  Massachu- 
setts, but  it  has 
not  nearly  so  many 
people.  The  little 
state  of  Rhode  Is- 
land has  between 
three  hundred  and 
four  hundred  peo- 
has  less  than  one 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.Y. 

Weaving  Room  in  a  Cotton  Mill 


pie   per  square  mile,  while  Nevada 
person  for  each  square  mile. 

The  amount  of  goods  produced  in  a  single  one  of  the 
numerous  manufacturing  cities  of  this  section  is  surpris- 
ing. The  cotton  mills  of  Fall  River  produce  more  than 
two  miles  of  cloth  in  a  minute.  If  all  the  cloth  manu- 
factured in  the  mills  of  that  city  in  a  year  could  be 
drawn  out  in  one  continuous  piece,  it  would  very  nearly 
reach  from  the  earth  to  the  moon  and  back  again. 

The  goods  manufactured  in  New  England  are  sent  to 
all  parts  of  the  world. 


AGRICULTURE 


37 


1.  Cotton  manufacturing  in  this  country  was  begun  at  Pawtucket 
in  the  year  1790.     In  what  state  is  Pawtucket? 

2.  Providence  contains  some  of  the  largest  cotton  mills  in  the  world 
and  manufactures  much  jewelry.      About  how  far  is  it  from  Boston  ? 

3.  More  cotton  cloth  is  made  in  Fall  River,  New  Bedford,  Lowell,  and 
Manchester  than  in  any  other  cities  of  the  country.     Locate  these  cities. 

4.  The  Merrimac  River  turns  more  spindles  than  any  other  river  in 
America.  Name  the  cities  on  that  river  and  the  state  in  which  each  is 
situated. 

5.  Large  quantities  of  hardware  and  firearms  are  manufactured  at 
New  Haven.     In  what  part  of  Connecticut  is  it? 

6.  Cars  are  made  at  Hartford  and  Springfield.     Locate  these  cities. 

7.  In  a  single  factory  in  Waltham  over  two  thousand  watches  a  day 
are  made.     In  what  part  of  Massachusetts  is  Waltham  ? 

8.  More  shoes  are  made  in  Haverhill  than  in  any  other  city.  In 
what  direction  is  it  from  Boston  ? 

9.  Worcester  is  noted  for  a  great  variety  of  manufactures.  In  what 
part  of  Massachusetts  is  it? 


'?*& 


W***m 


8.    Agriculture 

The  most  important  and  necessary  business  in  a 
great  country  like  ours  is  agriculture.  Although  in 
many  localities  the  leading  occupation  of  the  people 
may  be  manufacturing,  or  lumbering,  or  mining,  the 
welfare  of  all  the  people  of  the  country  depends  more 


38 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


upon  agriculture  than  upon  any  other  industry.  When 
the  farmers  are  able  to  produce  large  crops,  there  is  an 
abundant  supply  of  materials  for  food  and  clothing 
for  all  the  people  and  much  to  sell  in  foreign  countries. 
Nearly  one  half  of  our  entire  people  are  engaged  in  agri- 
culture, but  this 
is  not  true  of  the 
people  in  the  North- 
eastern Section.  A 
large  proportion  of 
these  are  engaged 
in  other  occupa- 
tions. 

The  early  set- 
tlers along  the  east- 
ern coast  of  the 
country  were 
nearly  all  farmers. 
They  cut  down 
trees,  tilled  the 
land,  and  raised  crops  to  supply  their  families  with  food 
and  clothing. 

But  while  these  people  could  obtain  from  their  small 
farms  enough  for  their  simple  wants,  this  part  of  the 
country  was  not  suitable  for  the  business  of  agriculture 
in  a  large  way.  Much  of  the  land  is  very  hilly  and 
rocky  and  in  many  sections  the  soil  contains  so  little 
plant  food  that  it  is  necessary  to  purchase  large  quan- 
tities of  fertilizers  to  enrich  it. 

Since  the  soil  here  was  brought  from  various  regions  in 
the  north  by  the  Ice  Sheet,  it  differs  greatly  in  different 


Digging  Potatoes 


AGRICULTURE 


39 


localities.  Here  and  there  finely  pulverized  clay  and 
other  varieties  of  soil  are  found,  which  make  good  land 
for  farms.  In  other  places  so  many  large  rocks  were 
dropped  by  the  ice  that  the  land  is  nearly  worthless  for 
cultivation. 

In  several  regions  the  land  is  good  for  raising  special 
crops,  and  in  these  agriculture  is  a  successful  business. 


Shipping  Milk  to  the  City 

In  the  northern  part  of  Maine  thousands  of  acres  of 
potatoes  are  raised  every  year.  In  the  fine  soil  along 
the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  River  a  large  amount  of 
tobacco  and  other  crops  is  raised.  In  the  states  of  this 
section  to  the  west  and  southwest  of  New  England 
there  are  larger  regions  of  good  farming  land. 

Dairying  is  an  important  industry  in  parts  of  New 
England,  especially  in  Vermont,  and  in  the  states  of 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  The  rough  lands  afford 
pasture  for  cows  in  summer,  and  in  the  cultivated  fields 
hay,  corn,  and  other  crops  are  raised  to  supply  food  for 
winter. 


40 


THE   UNITED   STATES    • 


A  large  amount  of  milk  is  required  to  supply  the 
numerous  towns  and  cities.  A  very  large  quantity  also 
is  manufactured  into  butter  and  cheese.  Instead  of 
making  butter  or  cheese  at  home,  many  farmers  send 
milk  or  cream  to  a  creamery,  where  it  can  be  manufac- 
tured in  large  quantities  with  less  labor.     Nearly  all  of 

the  cheese  now  pro- 
duced in  the  United 
States  is  made  in 
factories. 

Cream  is  sepa- 
rated from  milk 
in  different  ways. 
It  is  lighter  than 
skimmed  milk,  and 
if  milk  is  kept  cold 
in  ice  water  for  a 
time,  the  cream 
rises  to  the  top 
and  is  then  re- 
moved. It  is  removed  much  more  quickly  by  a  machine 
called  a  separator.  Every  boy  knows  that  if  he  fastens 
a  stone  to  a  string  and  whirls  it  about,  it  will  pull 
hard  upon  his  finger  as  it  tends  to  %  away.  The 
heavier  an  object  is  the  more  it  will  tend  to  pull  away. 
When  milk  is  whirled  about  very  rapidly  in  a  separator, 
the  skimmed  milk,  which  is  heavier  than  cream,  crowds 
to  the  outside  and  is  there  drawn  off  through  a  tube, 
while  the  cream  is  drawn  off  through  another  tube. 

Cream  consists  of  particles  of  butter  fat  surrounded 
with  buttermilk.      In    a   churn   cream    is    stirred    and 


Copyright  by  Keystone  View  Co. 

A  Great  Churn 
This  churns  800  pounds  of  butter  at  once. 


AGRICULTURE 


41 


beaten  about  so  forcibly  that  the  particles  of  fat  are 
separated  from  the  milk  and  form  butter. 

In  a  cheese  factory  milk  is  carefully  heated  to  a 
certain  temperature,  and  then  a  liquid  called  rennet  is 
stirred  into  it.  In  a  short  time  the  white  substance  of 
the  milk  forms  a  curd  and  this  is  pressed  into  cheese. 


:  "^^^ 

*■ 

Hi 

i 

( 

fcy. 

:$*■■£& 

Ml 

^/':i*% 

p 

•rj  y-;r^v;, . 

■  "JSL  ~ 

*;j  1 

5..V38  * 

\>  *'*' 

mlLJ 

:ii§ 

A  Vineyard  in  New  York 

So  many  vegetables  are  needed  for  the  numerous 
cities  of  this  section  that  many  people  living  near  each 
of  them  are  engaged  in  the  business  of  truck  farming. 
The  farmers  receive  such  good  prices  for  fresh  vege- 
tables that  they  can  afford  to  buy  fertilizers  enough  to 
make  the  land  produce  good  crops. 

In  the  state  of  New  York,  along  the  southern  shore 
of  Lake  Ontario,  grapes  and  various  other  fruits  are 
raised  in  great  abundance.  In  the  vicinity  of  Eochester 
there  are  noted  nurseries  which  supply  young  trees  and 
shrubs  to  the  fruit  regions  of  the  state. 


42 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


Large  quantities  of  strawberries,  peaches,  and  other 
fruits  are  produced  in  the  states  of  New  Jersey  and 
Delaware. 

Thousands  of  farmers  in  New  England  and  in  north- 
ern New  York  are  able  to  add  to  their  income  by  ac- 
commodating summer  boarders  who  go  there  to  rest 
and  to  escape  the  heat  of  cities  farther  south. 

1.  Why  do  not  the  farmers  of  the  Northeastern  Section,  raise  food 
enough  for  the  people  of  that  section  ? 

2.  How  can  many  farmers  on  small  farms  near  cities  make  as  much 
profit  as  those  on  larger  farms  farther  away  ? 

3.  Why  have  many  farming  people  removed  from  New  England  to 
the  West  ? 

4.  Why  is  the  soil  thin  on  most  of  the  uplands  of  New  England  ? 

5.  St.  Albans,  Vermont,  is  a  great  center  for  dairy  products.  In  what 
part  of  the  state  is  it  ? 

6.  Lancaster  is  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  farming  country.  In  what 
part  of  Pennsylvania  is  it? 

7.  Large  quantities  of  fruit  and  vegetables  are  canned  at  Baltimore 
and  Wilmington.     In  what  states  are  these  cities  ? 

8.  There  is  much  tobacco  manufactured  at  Lynchburg  and  Danville,  in 
Virginia.     Locate  these  places. 


LUMBER  REGIONS     \     r 


|  |  Heavily  Timbered 

r ''  j  Moderately  Timbered 


FORESTS 


43 


9.    Forests 

The  eastern  part  of  our  country  was  once  mostly 
covered  with  forests,  but  now  the  greater  part  of  the 
trees  have  been  cleared  away  to  make  farms  for  the 
cultivation  of  crops  and  for  pasturing  domestic  animals. 

This  process  has  continued  as  the  people  have  gone 
farther  and    farther   back  into  the   woods,  taking  the 


A  Logging  Camp  in  Maine 

forests  for  farms,  until  most  of  the  large  forests  have 
disappeared.  Those  that  remain  are  chiefly  in  regions 
where  the  land  is  not  desirable  for  farms  or  in  districts 
far  away  from  settled  communities. 

In  the  northern  part  of  New  England  there  are  still 
extensive  forests.  There  are  large  forests  also  in  the 
region  of  the  Adirondack  Mountains  in  New  York  and 
along  the  Appalachian  Mountains  in  the  states  farther 
south.     The  largest  forests  in  the  Northeast  are  those 


44  THE   UNITED   STATES 

in  northern  Maine.  These  once  contained  man}7-  tall 
pine  trees,  and  Maine  is  still  sometimes  called  the  "  Pine 
Tree  State,"  but  most  of  the  pines  have  been  cut  and 
forests  of  spruce  have  grown  in  their  places. 

Most  of  the  timber  that  is  cut  in  these  northern 
forests  is  drawn  upon  snow  in  winter  to  the  banks  of 
streams.  In  the  spring,  when  the  water  runs  high  in 
the  streams  on  account  of  rains  and  melting  snow,  the 


A  Sawmill 

logs  float  down  over  the  rough  and  rocky  places  into 
the  deeper  rivers,  and  finally  to  mills,  where  they  are 
sawed  into  lumber.  The  most  favorable  locations  for 
lumber  mills  are  at  points  near  waterfalls,  which  can  be 
reached  by  vessels  from  the  ocean.  Logs  can  be  floated 
to  such  mills,  the  waterfalls  furnish  power,  and  the  lum- 
ber can  be  easily  shipped  away.  The  city  of  Bangor, 
which  is  a  noted  lumber  center,  has  all  these  advan- 
tages. But  the  lumber  from  many  mills  is  sent  to 
market  on  railroads,  and  wherever  water  power  cannot 
be  obtained,  the  mills  are  run  by  steam  power  produced 


FORESTS 


45 


by  burning  sawdust  and  refuse  wood  that  come  from 
the  process  of  manufacturing. 

The  forests  have  been  cut  away  very  fast  since  paper 
began  to  be  made  from  wood.  Spruce  and  hemlock 
are  the  best  kinds 
of  wood  for  pape 
making,  but  other 
varieties  also  are 
used.  A  large 
part  of  the  mate- 
rial for  wrapping 
paper,  newspapers, 
and  books  is  now 
made  from  wood. 
The  American  peo- 
ple use  so  many 
books  and  read  so 
many  papers  that 
a  great  amount  of 
material  is  re- 
quired for  them.  The  demand  has  increased  so  fast 
that  the  forests  have  been  cut  down  faster  than  new 
forests  can  grow,  and  a  large  amount  of  wood  for  the 
paper  mills  of  the  country  is  now  imported  from  the 
forests  of  Canada. 

It  is  said  that  the  paper  for  a  single  edition  of  a  New 
York  Sunday  newspaper  requires  as  much  wood  as 
several  hundred  acres  of  land  will  produce  in  thirty  or 
forty  years.  When  we  consider  how  many  newspapers 
are  published  in  all  the  cities  of  the  country,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  the  forests  are  disappearing. 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.Y. 

Making  Paper  from  Wood  Pulp 


46  THE   UNITED   STATES 

It  has  been  discovered  recently  that  paper  can  be 
made  from  corn  stalks,  from  the  stalks  of  the  cotton 
plant,  and  from  some  kinds  of  coarse  grass.  If  this 
discovery  is  successful,  it  will  help  to  save  the  forests. 

It  is  most  discouraging  when,  in  the  dry  summer 
season,  the  air  becomes  filled  with  the  smoke  of  great 
forest  fires.  Camp  fires  carelessly  left  in  the  woods 
often  destroy  thousands  of  acres  of  valuable  timber. 
It  takes  as  many  as  a  hundred  years  for  large  forest 
trees  to  grow  and  when  all  the  trees,  both  large  and 
small,  have  been  destroyed  by  fire  or  by  the  woodsman's 
ax,  there  can  be  no  hope  that  other  forests  will  soon 
take  the  places  of  those  that  are  gone. 

Our  national  government  and  the  governments  of 
some  of  the  states  are  now  striving  to  protect  the 
forests  by  checking  forest  fires,  by  encouraging  the 
planting  of  trees,  and  by  preventing  lumbermen  from 
destroying  small  trees  when  cutting  large  ones. 

The  bark  of  hemlock  trees  and  oak  trees  is  used 
for  tanning  purposes  in  making  leather.  Much  hem- 
lock bark  is  obtained  in  the  eastern  part  of  Maine,  and 
oak  bark  in  the  states  farther  south. 

1.  Mt.  Katahdin  is  in  the  midst  of  extensive  forests.  In  what  part 
of  Maine  is  it? 

2.  On  what  river  is  the  city  of  Bangor? 

3.  There  are  paper  mills  at  Waterville  and  Augusta.  By  what  river 
are  logs  floated  to  these  cities  ? 

4.  Large  quantities  of  paper  are  made  at  Bellows  Falls,  Vermont, 
and  at  Holyoke,  Massachusetts.     On  what  river  are  they  ? 

5.  William  sport,  in  Pennsylvania,  has  an  extensive  lumber  business. 
In  what  part  of  the  state  is  it  ? 

6.  Watertown,  New  York,  has  large  paper  mills.  Near  what  forest 
region  is  it  ? 


FISHING 


47 


10.    Fishing 

Fishing  has  always  been  an  important  industry  along 
our  northeastern  coast.  There  are  shallow  waters  along 
the  coast  from  Cape  Cod  to  the  island  of  Newfoundland. 
A  part  of  this  region  of  shallow  water,  near  Newfound- 
land, is  called  the  "  Grand  Banks."  Here  the  icebergs 
from  the  north  float  into  warmer  water,  and  are  melted, 


i_j,  m 


;^,/JgM 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Unloading  a  Cargo  of  Fish 

and  the  soil  and  rocks  which  they  have  brought  from 
the  glaciers  of  the  north  are  dropped  year  after  year, 
building  up  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 

Many  fish  live  in  these  shallow  waters  because  they 
find  more  food  there  than  in  other  parts  of  the  ocean. 
A  part  of  their  food  consists  of  very  small  plants  that 
float  in  the  water.  Large  fishes  feed  also  upon  smaller 
ones.  This  seems  like  an  unfortunate  custom  of  the 
world  of  fish,  but  probably  our  supply  is  not  greatly 


48 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


reduced  by  it.  So  many  millions  of  tiny  fishes  are 
hatched  every  year  that  if  all  of  them  should  escape  the 
jaws  of  their  hungry  neighbors,  the  ocean  could  not  fur- 
nish food  enough  for  such  an  immense  number,  and  a 
large  proportion  of  them  would  die  of  starvation. 

In  the  early  times  there  were  many  small  villages 
along  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  fishing,  for  either  a  part 
or  all  of  the  time,  was  the  occupation  of  large  numbers 


of  people.  This  was  a  good  training  school  for  sailor 
boys.  Many  young  men,  who  became  accustomed  to 
the  sea  by  fishing,  afterwards  served  on  larger  merchant 
ships  or  ships  of  war. 

Fish  were  formerly  found  in  great  abundance  near 
the  shore,  and  fishermen  went  out  in  small  boats  to 
catch  them,  but  now  it  is  necessary  to  go  farther  from 
the  shore  and  in  larger  vessels. 

The  lives  of  fishermen  are  full  of  hardship  and  dan- 
ger. In  their  small  vessels  they  are  exposed  to  many 
violent  storms.     In  the  dense  fog,  which  is  very  com- 


FISHING 


49 


mon  on  the  Grand  Banks,  their  boats  are  liable  to  strike 
against  icebergs  or  abandoned  wrecks,  or  to  be  sunk  by 
large  ocean  steamers  which  pass  across  the  "  Banks  "  on 
their  way  to  Europe.  For  many  years  there  has  been 
an    average    of   more    than  a   hundred  fishermen   lost 


average 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Drying  Fish  at  Gloucester,  Mass. 

annually  from  the  boats  which  have  gone  out  from  the 
single  city  of  Gloucester,  Massachusetts. 

But  the  business  is  profitable,  and  thousands  are  will- 
ing to  risk  its  dangers.  The  fishermen  of  New  England 
bring  in  about  ten  million  dollars  worth  of  fish  every 
year.  Several  hundred  fishing  vessels  go  out  from 
Gloucester.  Many  of  these  go  to  the  Grand  Banks  and 
some  of  them  even  to  Greenland  and  Iceland. 

Boston  is  one  of  the  greatest  fish  markets   in   the 


50  THE   UNITED   STATES 

world.  Over  one  hundred  million  pounds  of  fish  have 
been  brought  into  Boston  in  a  single  year. 

Codfish  are  caught  with  baited  hooks  on  lines.  On 
the  fishing  ground  a  long  rope,  called  a  trawl,  is  fas- 
tened to  floats,  and  hundreds  of  hooks  are  attached  to 
the  trawl.  Men  go  out  from  the  larger  vessels  in  small 
dories  and  gather  in  the  fish  and  bait  the  hooks.  This 
work  is  especially  dangerous.  The  small  boats  are  liable 
to  be  caught  in  a  fog  and  lose  their  way,  or  to  be  sunk 
in  a  storm. 

Some  codfish  are  sold  while  fresh,  but  most  of  them 
are  split,  cleaned,  soaked  in  brine,  and  dried.  After 
they  are  cured  in  this  way  they  may  be  kept  for  a  long 
time  and  sent  to  distant  markets. 

Halibut  are  also  caught  with  lines.  These  fisl*  are 
very  large.  Some  of  them  weigh  several  hundred 
pounds  each. 

Some  smaller  fish,  like  mackerel,  swim  together  in 
large  schools.  When  a  school  of  mackerel  is  swim- 
ming near  the  surface,  a  net  is  drawn  around  the  fish 
as  they  are  crowded  together  in  the  water  and  large 
numbers  are  gathered  in. 

Shad  swim  up  the  rivers  from  the  ocean,  and  many 
are  caught  in  the  rivers  that  flow  into  Chesapeake  Bay, 
as  well  as  in  those  farther  north. 

Trout  in  the  mountain  streams,  and  perch,  pickerel, 
bass,  and  other  fish  in  ponds  and  lakes,  provide  much 
sport ;  but  these  fish  are  generally  small  and  do  not  con- 
tribute greatly  to  our  supply  of  food. 

Lobsters  are  caught  along  the  coast.  They  are  es- 
pecially abundant  on  the  coast  of  Maine.     Traps  con- 


FISHING 


51 


taining   bait   are    lowered  to  the  bottom  and  lobsters 
crawl  into  these  in  search  of  food. 

Clams  and  oysters  also  furnish  considerable  food  from 
the  sea.  Clams  live  in  the  mud  near  the  shore,  and 
are  dug  when  the 
tide  is  low.  When 
oysters  are  young, 
they  are  very  small, 
active  animals,  far 
different  from  the 
form  in  which  we 
see  them,  and  swim 
about  in  the  water. 
After  a  time  they 
go  to  the  bottom, 
fasten  themselves 
to  bits  of  rock  or 
other  objects,  form  shells  about  themselves,  and  remain 
in  the  same  positions  through  their  lives.  They  are 
found  in  the  quiet  waters  of  some  of  the  bays  along  the 
shore  south  of  Cape  Cod,  but  are  most  abundant  in 
Chesapeake  Bay. 

1.  Find  about  how  far  fishing  vessels  sail  in  going  from  Gloucester  to 
the  Grand  Banks. 

2.  Give  reasons  why  Boston  is  naturally  a  large  market  for  fish. 

3.  Baltimore  and  Norfolk  are  noted  for  canning  oysters.  Why  are  so 
many  canned  at  these  places? 

4.  Why  are  fishermen  forbidden  to  catch  and  sell  young  lobsters? 

5.  Name  as  many  kinds  of  salt-water  fish  as  you  can. 

6.  Name  as  many  kinds  of  fresh-water  fish  as  you  can. 

7.  Draw  a  line  representing  the  coast  line  of  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  country  and  locate  Portland,  Gloucester,  Boston,  Providence,  Norfolk, 
and  Baltimore. 


i 

Dredging  for  Oysters  in  Chesapeake  Bay 


52  THE   UNITED   STATES 


ii.   Building  Stones 


The  solid  rock,  which  is  everywhere  to  be  found  be- 
neath the  soil  of  the  land  and  under  the  mud  at  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean,  has  an  interesting  history.  Most 
of  the  rock  near  the  surface  is  in  layers  and  most  of 
these  layers  have  been  formed  from  sand  and  mud. 

The  rivers  are  continually  carrying  mud  into  the 
ocean,  where  it  is  spread  out  over  the.  ocean  bottom.  In 
a  very  long  time  the  particles  of  this  mud  become  ce- 
mented together  and  the  whole  mass  changes  to  stone. 
During  the  millions  of  years  since  the  crust  of  the  earth 
was  formed,  with  the  ocean  waters  upon  it,  one  layer  of 
stone  after  another  has  thus  been  made. 

Stone  that  has  been  formed  from  a  layer  of  sand 
under  the  water  is  called  sandstone.  Slate  rock  has 
been  formed  from  mud  composed  of  finer  particles  than 
those  of  sandstone. 

Limestone  contains  the  shells,  or  skeletons,  of  tiny  ani- 
mals that  have  lived  in  the  ocean.  Millions  of  these 
live  near  the  surface  of  the  water  and  when  they  die, 
their  bodies,  which  contain  lime,  sink  into  the  mud  at 
the  bottom.  Such  a  layer  of  mud,  when  it  hardens,  be- 
comes limestone. 

By  the  slow  movements  which  have  taken  place  in  the 
crust  of  the  earth,  portions  of  the  bottom  of  the  ocean 
have  been  brought  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  In 
the  rock  at  the  tops  of  mountains  fossils  are  sometimes 
found  showing  the  prints  of  seashells.  This  indicates 
that  even  the  tops  of  the  mountains  were  once  at  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean. 


BUILDING   STONES 


53 


Rock  that  was  formed  in  layers,  or  strata,  is  called 
stratified  rock.  Deep' below  the  stratified  rock,  and 
sometimes  appearing  at  the  surface,  there  are  other  kinds 
called  crystalline  rock.  When  melted  sugar  is  slowly 
cooled,  it  forms  crystals,  as  in  making  rock  candy. 
Some  of  the  hot,  melted  matter  beneath  the  outer  crust 
of  the  earth,  by  slow  cooling,  has  formed  crystals  of  rock. 
Granite  has  been  formed  in  this  way.     The  rock  that 


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Stratified  Rock 

is  formed  by  the  cooling  of  lava  that  comes  from  vol- 
canoes is  another  kind  of  crystalline  rock. 

A  small  amount  of  the  rock  of  the  earth's  crust  is 
used  by  man  for  various  purposes.  It  is  obtained  in  the 
most  convenient  places,  and  these  are  called  quarries. 

When  mountains  were  formed  by  the  wrinkling  of 
the  earth's  surface,  the  granite,  which  was  under  the 
stratified  rock,  was  raised  beneath  the  strata  and  formed 
the  lower  central  part   of  the    mountains.      In  places 


54 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


where  the  old  Appalachian  Mountains  have  been  mostly 
worn  away,  the  granite  has  been  uncovered.  In  the 
case  of  some  very  old  mountains  almost  everything  ex- 
cept the  granite  has  been  worn  away.  Mt.  Washington 
and  Mt.  Katahdin  are  almost  wholly  granite. 

It  costs  so  much  to  carry  heavy  rock  long  distances 
on  land  that  it  is  usually  quarried  only  when  it  is  found 


A  Granite  Quarry 

near  cities,  or  near  the  water  where  it  can  be  loaded  upon 
vessels.  A  large  amount  of  granite  is  shipped  from 
the  coast  of  Maine  and  Massachusetts  to  cities  that 
can  be  reached  by  vessels.  It  is  used  for  buildings,  pav- 
ing stones,  and  other  purposes. 

Marble  is  much  softer  than  granite  and  can  be  sawed 
into  pieces  of  regular  sizes.  It  is  used  for  buildings, 
monuments,  and  statues.     It  is  more  scarce  and  valu- 


BUILDING   STONES 


55 


able  than  granite  and  is  often  shipped  long  distances  on 
railroads.  The  most  noted  marble  quarries  are  near 
Rutland,  Vermont.  Most  marble  is  nearly  white,  but 
that  of  the  Rutland  quarries  is  streaked  with  blue. 

Slate  rock  is  valuable  because  it  is  composed  of  thin 
layers  with  smooth  surfaces.  It  is  used  largely  to  cover 
the  roofs  of  houses.  Slate  is  found  in  various  parts 
of  the  New  England  States  and  in  Pennsylvania. 


Marble  Quarry  at  Rutland,  Vermont 


Limestone  is  valuable  in  constructing  buildings.  It 
is  used  also  in  blast  furnaces  for  smelting  iron  ore. 
Quicklime  is  produced  by  heating  pieces  of  limestone  in 
limekilns.  Every  one  has  seen  masons  preparing  plaster 
for  building  walls  or  chimneys  or  plastering  houses. 
They  pour  water  upon  pieces  of  lime.  Very  soon  the 
water  disappears  and  the  lime  becomes  hot  and  crumbles. 
Lime  has  a  strong  attraction  for  moisture.  The  heat  of 
a  limekiln  drives  off  the  moisture ;  but  when  water  is 


56 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


thrown  upon  quicklime,  particles  of  lime  seize  upon  par- 
ticles of  water  and  hold  them  in  a  solid  form.  It  is 
the  process  by  which  particles  of  water  and  lime  are 
united  that  causes  so  much  heat. 

Sandstone  is  often  used  for  foundation  walls  and  other 
parts  of  buildings. 

1.  Footprints  of  animals  are  sometimes  found  on  layers  of  stone  deep 
below  the  surface  of  the  land.     What  does  this  show  ? 

2.  How  do  we  know  that  mountains  that  have  a  surface  of  granite 
are  very  old  ? 

3.  Why  is  not  granite  quarried  at  Mt.  Washington  ? 

4.  Why  is  New  Hampshire  called  the  Granite  State? 

5.  The  Quincy  granite  quarry  is  not  far  from  Boston  and  not  far  from 
the  coast.     Why  are  both  of  these  facts  of  great  advantage? 

6.  There  are  granite  quarries  at  Concord,  New  Hampshire,  Glouces- 
ter, Massachusetts,  and  Westerly,  Rhode  Island.     Locate  these  places. 

7.  How  do  we  know  that  the  beds  of  marble  were  once  at  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  ? 

8.  There  are  valuable  limestone  beds  at  Rockland,  Maine.     Locate 
that  city. 


Map  showing  Coal  Areas 


COAL 


57 


12.    Coal 

The  most  important  of  all  the  minerals  that  are 
taken  from  mines  is  coal.  The  coal  mines  of  our  country 
are  its  storehouses  of  heat  and  power.  Coal  furnishes 
steam  power  for  mills  and  workshops,  for  railroad  loco- 
motives, and  for  steamboats.  It  supplies  heat  for  cook- 
ing food  and  for  comfort  in  millions  of  households. 


Vegetation  of  the  Age  when  the  Making  of  Coal  Began 

Man  lived  on  the  earth  for  thousands  of  years  with- 
out knowing  that  coal  could  be  burned.  If  its  useful- 
ness had  never  been  discovered,  how  different  would  the 
progress  of  the  world  have  been !  For  some  purposes 
wood  might  have  been  used  instead  of  coal,  but  only 
with  great  inconvenience.  Think  of  an  express  train 
stopping  here  and  there  to  take  on  a  supply  of  wood 
for  the  engine.  Think  of  a  steamship  taking  on  wood 
enough  to  drive  it  across  the  ocean.     It  would  require 


58  THE   UNITED   STATES 

so  much  space  that  there  would  be  no  room  for  cargo 
or  passengers.  Besides  such  difficulties,  if  we  depended 
upon  wood  for  heat,  all  the  trees  of  the  world  would  soon 
be  consumed,  and  then  mankind  would  be  in  a  sad  plight. 
Man  could  never  have  reached  his  present  stage  of  civil- 
ization without  coal.     How  fortunate  it  was  that  millions 


Mammoth  Vein  of  Coal  One  Mile  under  Ground 

of  years  ago,  before  man  appeared  upon  the  earth,  this 
substance  was  stored  away  for  his  needs. 

Coal  was  formed  in  what  is  called  the  Carboniferous 
Age  of  the  earth.  At  a  time  when  portions  of  North 
America  sometimes  rose  above  the  surface  of  the  ocean 
and  sometimes  sank  again  below  the  waters,  and  layers 
of  rock  were  formed,  layers  of  coal  were  formed  in 
some  regions  between  the  layers  of  rock. 

In  moist  regions  trees  and  other  plants  grew  and  fell. 
The  accumulation  of  many  years  produced  a  layer  of 
vegetable  matter  similar  to  the  layers  of  muck  or  peat 
which  are  now  to  be  found  in   swampy  places.     When 


COAL  59 

the  land  sank  and  water  washed  over  it,  this  layer  of 
vegetable  matter  was  covered  with  a  layer  of  mud, 
which  was  afterwards  changed  to  stone.  As  such 
changes  continued  for  millions  of  years,  several  layers 
of  stone  were  formed,  one  upon  another,  with  now  and 
then  a   layer  of   vegetable    matter.     As  the  vegetable 


Train  coining  from  Bituminous  Coal  Mine 

matter  was  crowded  down  by  the  weight  of  the  rock 
formed  above  it,  it  was  slowly  changed  to  coal. 

In  some  places  the  layers  of  stone  and  coal  have  been 
so  tilted  by  movements  of  the  earth's  crust  that  layers 
of  coal  appear  at  the  surface,  but  it  is  usually  necessary 
to  find  them  by  sinking  shafts  through  layers  of  rock. 

A  large  part  of  the  coal  found  in  the  country  is  soft, 
or  bituminous  coal.  In  the  northeastern  part  of  Penn- 
sylvania, in  the  region  of  the  old  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains, a  different  kind  is  obtained,  which  is  called  hard, 
or  anthracite.  In  this  region  where  mountains  were 
formed  by  folds  in  the  earth's  crust  there  was  an  unusual 
amount  of  pressure  and  the  coal  became  very  hard. 


60 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


Anthracite  is  much  more  desirable  than  bituminous 
coal  for  some  purposes,  and  since  it  is  found  chiefly  in 
this  one  region  in  Pennsylvania,  it  is  shipped  to  various 
parts  of  the  country. 

More  coal  is  now  produced  in  the  United  States  than 
in  any  other  country  of  the  world.     There  are  layers  of 

coal  beneath  more  than  one 
sixth  of  the  entire  surface 
of  the  country. 

1 .  Name  the  states  through  which 
the  eastern  or  Appalachian  coal  fields 
extend.     (See  map  on  page  50.) 

2.  In  what  two  other  states  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River  are  there 
large  coal  fields  ? 

3.  What  three  states  west  of  the 
Mississippi  have  large  beds  of  coal  ? 

4.  Name  ten  other  states  in  which 
there  are  smaller  coal  fields. 

5.  A  very  large  amount  of  coal  is  obtained  near  Pittsburg.  In  what 
part  of  Pennsylvania  is  this  city? 

0.  There  are  beds  of  anthracite  coal  near  Wilkesbarre  and  Scranton. 
In  what  part  of  the  state  are  they? 

7.  Why  is  the  price  of  coal  low  in  such  regions  as  Pennsylvania  and 
West  Virginia? 

8.  Wrhy  do  the  people  in  the  northern  part  of  Maine,  Michigan,  and 
certain  other  states,  burn  wood  for  fuel,  although  coal  may  be  more  desir- 
able? 

9.  Does  coal  probably  cost  more  in  Boston  or  in  Philadelphia  ? 

10.    Make  a  map  of  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  locating  the  mountains, 
the  largest  rivers,  and  the  cities  that  are  important  coal  centers. 


Coal  as  seen  through  a  Microscope 


Section  of  Earth's  Crust  showing  Layers  of  Coal 


IRON 


61 


13.    Iron 

The  second  important  substance  obtained  from  mines 
is  iron,  the  most  useful  of  the  metals.  Iron  is  so  com- 
mon and  cheap  that  we  may  think  but  little  of  it ;  but  we 
use  so  much  that  the  amount  obtained  from  the  mines 
is  worth  far  more  than  the  gold  from  our  gold  mines. 

What  should  we  do  without  iron  and  steel  for  engines, 
boilers,  and  machines  in  our  factories,  for  locomotives 
and  rails  for  our  railroads,  for  bridges,  for  the  frames 


"*!F^"^3»^ jjL 

■,*r!K*{0$'A 

m    - 

Loading  Ore  at  a  Pennsylvania  Iron  Mine 

of  great  buildings  in  our  cities,  for  stoves  and  furnaces 
in  our  homes,  and  for  hundreds  of  other  things  ? 

Iron  is  so  valuable  to  mankind  that  even  uncivilized 
people  have  learned  to  use  it.  Many  barbarous  tribes 
in  Africa,  before  they  had  seen  a  white  man,  obtained 
iron  by  melting  iron  ore  and  with  it  made  spear  heads 
and  ornaments. 

There  are  small  quantities  of  iron  in  many  of  the 
rocks  and  in  the  soil.      Iron  in  the  soil  often  gives  it  a 


62  THE   UNITED   STATES 

reddish  or  a  brown  color.  As  water  passes  slowly  through 
soil  or  porous  rocks  that  contain  iron,  it  dissolves  a  little 
of  the  metal  and  carries  it  away.  In  certain  places  to 
which  dissolved  iron  is  thus  carried,  it  separates  from 
the  water  again  and  in  a  long  period  of  time  a  large 
amount  accumulates. 

Sometimes  iron  is  found  deep  in  the  earth,  in  places 
to  which  water  has  carried  it  and  where  it  has  filled 


Coke  Ovens 

spaces  between  rocks,  and  sometimes  in  beds  near  the 
surface,  where  it  has  settled  from  standing  water. 

In  the  form  in  which  it  is  first  found  it  is  not  pure 
iron  but  iron  ore,  or  iron  combined  with  other  sub- 
stances. It  must  be  separated  from  these  substances 
before  it  can  be  used.  This  is  done  by  mixing  iron  ore 
with  limestone  and  heating  it  very  hot  in  blast  fur- 
naces, a  process  that  is  called  smelting. 

For  smelting  ore,  coke  is  used  instead  of  coal  because 
it  produces  greater  heat.  Coke  is  prepared  from  coal. 
Large  coke  ovens,  called  "beehive  ovens,"  are  filled  with 
coal  and  a  fire  is  started.     After  the  coal  has  become 


IRON 


63 


very  hot  the  draughts  are  closed.  This  prevents  the  coal 
from  being  consumed  and  converted  into  ashes,  because 
air  is  necessary  if  anything  is  to  burn,  but  the  great  heat 
drives  off  certain  other  substances,  leaving  coke,  which 
is  the  part  of  coal  that  will  produce  the  hottest  fire. 

One  substance  driven  away  from  coal  in  coke  ovens 
is    common   illuminating  gas,  such  as    is  used  in  city 


A  Bessemer  Converter  making  Iron  into  Steel 

houses.  At  city  gas  works  this  gas  is  obtained  by  heat- 
ing coal,  and  the  coke,  which  is  not  needed  at  the  gas 
works,  is  sold  for  other  purposes. 

Common  iron,  or  pig  iron,  is  used  for  many  purposes, 
though  it  contains  impurities.  It  may  be  rendered 
harder  and  stronger  by  processes  that  change  it  into  steel. 
One  process  consists  in  burning  some  of  the  impurities 
by  forcing  blasts  of  air  through  melted  iron. 

Steel  must  be  used,  instead  of  iron,  for  rails  on  rail- 


64 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


roads,  for  bridges  and  the  framework  of  buildings  where 
great  strength  is  needed,  for  tools  with  sharp  edges,  and 
for  many  other  purposes. 

By  certain  other  means  iron  and  steel  are  made  soft 
and  flexible  for  such  articles  as  wire  and  nails. 

In  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia  there  are  mines 
of  iron  ore,  and  the  coal  and  limestone  necessary  for 
smelting  it  are  found  in  abundance.     The  production  of 


Panorama  of  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  City 

iron  and  steel  and  the  manufacture  of  various  articles 
from  these  is  a  leading  industry  of  that  region.  In  the 
states  near  by,  to  which  iron  can  be  sent  without  great 
expense,  much  iron  and  steel  work  is  carried  on. 

The  city  of  Pittsburg  is  a  great  center  of  the  iron 
and  steel  industry.  Its  products  are  sent  to  the  most 
remote  countries  of  the  world.  It  has  furnished  loco- 
motives for  the  Siberian  railroad,  bridges  for  the  rivers 
of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  armor  plate  for  the  battleships 
of  many  countries. 


OIL,   GAS,   AND   SALT 


65 


1.  Why  is  iron  of  greater  importance  to  the  world  than  gold? 

2.  Name  some  improvements  that  could  not  have  been  made  so  easily 
if  no  iron  had  been  found  in  the  earth. 

3.  Name  a  number  of  articles  that  are  made  of  iron. 

4.  Name  as  many  articles  as  you  can  that  are  made  of  steel. 

5.  Why  are  many  steel  ships  made  in  Philadelphia  ? 

6.  Much  iron  is  manufactured  in  New  York  City.     Is  this  city  nearer 
the  iron  mines  than  Philadelphia  or  farther  from  them  ? 

7.  At  Wilmington,  Delaware,  many  cars  and  steel  ships  are  made. 
In  what  part  of  the  state  is  that  city  ? 

8.  A  large  amount  of   iron  is  manufactured  at  Wheeling,  in  West 
Virginia,  and  at  Roanoke,  in  Virginia.     Locate  these  places. 

9.  Many  stoves  are  made  at  Albany  and  Troy.     By  what  river  may 
iron  be  shipped  to  these  cities  ? 


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In  the  Oil  Region 


14.    Oil,   Gas,   and  Salt 

Other  useful  substances  besides  coal  and  iron  are 
found  in  the  earth  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  coun- 
try. At  a  time  when  this  region  was  beneath  the  ocean, 
large  numbers  of  animals  and  plants  died  and  sank  into 
the  mud  at  the  bottom.  As  they  slowly  decayed  oil 
and    gas    were   formed.     When    the    whole    mass   was 


66 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


changed  to  stone,  the  oil  and  the  gas  were  held  in  the 
pores  of  the  stone.  A  similar  kind  of  oil  is  now  obtained 
from  fish,  and  we  know  that  similar  gases  are  produced 
when  plants  decay. 

In  places  along  the  western  border   of  the  Appala- 
chian Mountains  oil  is  obtained  by  drilling  wells  deep 


PETROLEUM  REGIONS         \    f 


into  the  rock.  It  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  southwestern 
part  of  New  York.  There  are  valuable  oil  regions 
in  Texas  and  California,  as  well  as  in  various  other 
parts  of  the  country. 

In  the  oil  regions  there  are  many  tall  frames  or  der- 
ricks for  drilling  the  wells.  There  are  also  immense 
tanks  in  which  oil  is  stored. 

Sometimes  the  oil  that  is  reached  by  drilling  a  well  is 
under  such  pressure  in  the  rocks  that  it  will  rise  to  the 
surface  and  flow  away  without  pumping.  Sometimes 
the  pressure  is  so  great  at  first  that  the  oil  will  spurt 
high  into  the  air.  At  most  of  the  wells,  however,  it  is 
pumped  with  steam  pumps. 


OIL,    GAS,   AND   SALT 


67 


This  oil  is  called  petroleum,  which  means  rock  oil. 
It  is  also  sometimes  called  coal  oil.  As  it  first  comes 
from  the  earth  it  has  a  dark  yellow  or  reddish  color. 
Before  it  is  suitable  for  use  it  must  be  purified,  or  re- 
fined. The  refineries  at  which  this  work  is  done  are 
mostly  situated  at  seaports  or  lake 
ports  from  which  the  oil  may  be 
shipped  on  vessels. 

Petroleum   from  the  wells   in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country  is  conveyed 
to  the  refineries  in  a  peculiar  manner. 
It  is  not  usually  carried  on  railroads, 
but  is  pumped  through  large  pipes. 
We  know  how  water  for  the  supply 
of  a  city  is  pumped  through  a  pipe 
into   a  reservoir.     In  a  similar  way 
petroleum    is    pumped    through  hun- 
dreds of  miles  of  pipe.     There  is  a 
pipe  line  that  extends  from  the  state 
of  Kansas  to  Chicago  and  thence  to 
the  Atlantic  coast,  a  distance  of  seven- 
teen hundred  miles.     The  pipe  is  gen-       Gushing  ou  Well 
erally  buried  in  the  ground  and    beneath  the  beds  of 
rivers.     Steam  pumps  located  here  and  there  along  the 
way  pump  the  petroleum  from  one  point  to  another  till 
it  reaches  its  destination. 

By  the  process  of  refining  petroleum  a  great  number 
of  useful  substances  are  obtained,  such  as  gasoline, 
benzine,  and  vaseline.  It  is  said  that  there  are  more  than 
two  hundred  of  these  products,  but  by  far  the  most 
useful  is  kerosene. 


68 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


The  discovery  of  petroleum  and  of  the  method  of 
producing  kerosene  was  of  great  benefit  to  mankind. 
Before  that  time  people  depended  upon  candles  and 
lamps  without  chimneys.  These  lamps  smoked  and 
gave  only  a  dim  light. 

Oil  from  the  refineries  of  the  United  States  is  not  only 
used  in  all  parts  of  our  own  country,  but  is  carried  to 


A  Whaleback  Oil  Steamer 

the  most  remote  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  sent  on  rail- 
roads to  the  various  cities  of  the  country  by  tank  cars. 

It  is  carried  to  foreign  countries  in  steamers  built  for 
the  purpose,  which  are  really  floating  tanks.  At  the  re- 
fineries kerosene  is  pumped  into  the  steamers  and  at 
foreign  ports  it  is  pumped  out  and  distributed. 

There  is  scarcely  any  part  of  the  world  in  which 
travelers  do  not  see  American  oil.  It  is  carried  on  the 
backs  of  camels  across  the  deserts  of  Africa,  on  wheel- 
barrows through  the  streets  of  the  cities  of  China,  and 
on  sledges  over  the  snows  of  the  frozen  north. 

Natural  gas  also  is  obtained  by  drilling  deep  holes 


OIL,   GAS,   AND   SALT 


69 


into  the  rock.  When  a  reservoir  of  gas  is  reached,  the 
gas  rushes  out,  and  continues  to  do  so  for  a  very  long 
time.  Through  pipes  it  is  conducted  into  houses  and 
factories.  Some  towns  and  cities  are  entirely  supplied 
with  natural  gas  instead  of  that  produced  from  coal  at 


Syracuse  Salt  Works 

gas  works.  In  Pittsburg  natural  gas  is  used  in  furnaces 
for  making  glass  and  for  other  purposes. 

Beds  of  salt  are  found  in  some  places  buried  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  These  are  probably  the 
beds  of  ancient  salt  lakes  which  dried  up  and  were 
afterwards  buried.  There  are  a  few  lakes  at  the  pres- 
ent time  which  contain  so  much  salt  that  some  is  de- 
posited in  crystals  along  the  shores  or  at  the  bottom. 

Not  only  common  salt  but  other  salts  also  are  found 
in  beds  of  this  kind  in  the  state  of  New  York.  In  some 
places  large  shafts  are  sunk  and  the  salt  is  broken  in 
pieces  and  brought  up,  as  coal  is  obtained  from  a  mine. 
Sometimes  only  a  small  hole  is  drilled.  Water  is  then 
poured  down,  and  after  it  has  dissolved  as  much  salt  as 


70  THE    UNITED   STATES 

possible,  the  brine  is  pumped  up  and  the  water  is  evap- 
orated until  only  the  salt  remains. 

1.  The  cities  of  Bradford  and  Oil  City  are  near  the  oil  wells  of  Penn- 
sylvania.    In  what  part  of  the  state  are  they  ? 

2.  Why  do  most  of  the  pipe  lines  lead  to  the  seacoast  ? 

3.  Why  are  some  pipe  lines  built  to  cities  on  the  Great  Lakes  ? 

4.  Natural  gas  is  used  at  Wheeling.     Locate  that  city. 

5.  There  are  important  salt  and  soda  works  at  Syracuse.  In  what 
part  of  New  York  is  it  ? 

6.  Salt  is  obtained  also  near  Rochester.  In  what  direction  from 
Syracuse  is  it  ? 

7.  Make  a  map  of  the  states  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylva- 
nia, and  Delaware,  showing  the  mountains,  the  largest  rivers,  and  the 
cities  that  have  been  mentioned. 

15.    The   Ocean 

In  studying  geography  we  give  our  attention  chiefly 
to  the  bodies  of  land  because  these  are  the  homes  of 
man.  We  are  interested  in  the  ocean  because  we  may 
pass  over  it  in  ships  to  other  countries  and  because  it 
yields  us  fish  and  other  useful  products.  Aside  from 
these  facts  the  ocean  is  to  us  a  vast  expanse  of  water 
remaining  ever  the  same,  except  that  the  waves  upon 
its  surface  rise  in  time  of  storm  and  settle  in  calm 
weather.  Along  the  shore,  however,  where  the  ocean 
meets  the  land,  its  waves  produce  important  effects. 

Waves  are  caused  by  wind.  The  air  moving  over  the 
water  and  pressing  against  it  forces  it  up  into  ridges. 
These  ridges  immediately  fall  again  and  by  the  down- 
ward pressure  crowd  up  other  water  in  front.  This 
process  keeps  the  form  of  the  wave  continuous,  although 
the  water  in  the  wave  is  perpetually  changing.  Along 
the  shore  where  the  water  is  shallow  the  body  of  water 


THE   OCEAN  71 

in  a  wave  can  no  longer  make  room  for  itself  by  falling, 
but  is  driven  up  for  some  distance  upon  the  land. 

The  larger  a  body  of  water  is,  the  higher  the  waves, 
because  there  is  a  longer  time  for  the  wind  to  blow 
against  them  and  heap  them  up  before  they  reach  the 
shore.  The  largest  waves  are,  of  course,  upon  the 
ocean.     Storm  waves  there  are  sometimes  fifty  feet  high. 


"  Combing  "  Waves 

As  waves  run  up  the  shore  and  fall  back  again  they 
move  to  and  fro  the  small  stones,  which  they  slowly 
grind  into  sand  or  mud.  In  times  of  severe  winds  huge 
waves  strike  violently  against  cliffs  along  the  shore  and 
slowly  wear  these  away  also. 

Much  of  the  sand  or  mud  thus  produced  is  spread 
over  the  ocean  bottom,  but  in  some  places  it  remains 
upon  the  shore  and  makes  sandy  beaches. 

Those  who  live  near  the  seashore  are  aware  that  the 
ocean  does  not  remain  at  the  same  level,  but  that  it  slow- 
ly rises  for  a  time  and  then  settles  again.  This  is  due 
to  the  coming  and  going  of  the  tidal  wave,  or  the  tide. 


72 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


The  tidal  wave  is  thousands  of  miles  wide,  but  while 
passing  across  the  ocean  it  is  not  more  than  one  or  two 

feet  high.  It  is 
caused  chiefly  by 
the  moon,  which 
is  constantly  at- 
tracting, or  pull- 
ing, the  earth. 

By  a  force  called 
gravity,  every  ob- 
ject in  the  uni- 
verse     attracts 

The  Waves  break  the  Rocks  and  make  Sand      eyery  other  object 

toward  itself.  Objects  fall  upon  the  ground  because 
the  earth  attracts  them.  By  this  force  the  moon  at- 
tracts the  water  on  the  side  of  the  earth  that  is  turned 
toward  it,  and  for  other  reasons,  strange  as  it  may 
seem,  there  is  a  similar  wave  on  the  opposite  side. 


O 


As  the  earth  rotates  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  caus- 
ing the  moon  to  seem  to  revolve  around  the  earth  in 
the  opposite  direction,  these  tidal  waves  follow  the  moon 
and  both  of  them  pass  every  point  on  the  ocean  once 
in  about  twenty-four  hours.  As  the  wave  approaches 
the  shore  the  water  gradually  rises,  and  as  it  passes 
away  the  water  gradually  falls.  When  the  water  is 
rising,  we  have  flood  tide  and  when  it  is  falling,  we  have 


THE  OCEAN 


73 


ebb  tide.     The  tide  rises  for  about  six  hours  and  then 
falls  for  about  the  same  time. 

Although  the  moon  is  very  much  smaller  than   the 
sun,  it  pulls  upon 
the    earth   and 
raises    the   water 
more    than   the 
sun  does,  because 
it    is  so    much 
nearer  the  earth. 
The  attraction  of 
the  sun  has  a  lit- 
tle effect  of  the 
same  kind  as  that 
of     the     moon. 
When  the   moon 
and  the   sun  are 
on  the  same  side 
of  the  earth  or  on 
opposite   sides  of 
it,    they    act    to- 
gether   in    draw- 
ing out  the  water 
upon    the    earth, 
and    the    tide    is 
higher  than  usual. 

On  an  un- 
broken coast  exposed  to  the  open  sea  the  rise  or  fall 
of  the  tide  is  comparatively  slight.  Where  the  tidal 
wave  passes  into  a  bay  or  the  mouth  of  a  river,  and  the 
space  between  the  opposite  shores  becomes  narrower  as 


Low  Tide  —  Eiver  flowing'  "West 

Reversing  Falls,  St.  John,  N.B. 


74  THE   UNITED   STATES 

the  wave  advances,  the  water,  having  less  space  to 
spread  out,  rises  higher  and  higher.  In  parts  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  in  the  time  between  low  tide  and  high 
tide,  the  water  often  rises  from  fifty  to  seventy  feet. 

Some  rivers  in  their  lower  courses  are  nearly  as  low 
as  the  ocean,  and  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  affects 
them  for  some  distance  above  their  mouths. 

The  condition  of  the  tide  is  a  matter  of  much  im- 
portance to  sailors.  Large  ships  must  often  wait  for 
high  tide  before  sailing  up  a  river  or  before  returning  to 
the  sea. 

1.  Are  waves  higher  when  the  wind  is  blowing  toward  the  coast  or 
when  it  is  blowing  away  from  the  coast  ? 

2.  Why  are  pebbles  found  upon  the  shore  usually  very  smooth  ? 

3.  Why  are  sandy  beaches  usually  found  in  bays  rather  than  on 
coasts  which  extend  out  into  the  sea  ? 

4.  Why  do  many  cliffs  that  are  worn  by  waves  appear  rough  and  un- 
even in  places  ? 

5.  The  time  after  high  tide  before  high  tide  occurs  again  is  about 
12  hours,  26  minutes.  If  it  is  high  tide  to-day  at  12  o'clock,  at  what  time 
will  it  be  high  tide  to-morrow? 

6.  How  long  is  it  from  high  tide  to  low  tide  ? 

7.  In  some  places  mills  are  run  by  water  wheels  which  are  turned  by 
the  tide.     Would  such  a  water  wheel  turn  always  in  the  same  direction? 

8.  Copy  the  diagram,  showing  how  tides  are  caused  by  the  moon. 

16.   The  Atlantic  Coast 

The  form  of  the  coast  along  the  northeastern  part 
of  the  United  States  affords  good  illustrations  of  the 
changes  brought  about  by  waves  and  other  causes.  The 
wearing  effects  of  waves  are  to  be  seen  everywhere. 
Here  and  there  are  pleasant  bays  with  sandy  beaches, 
and  reaching  out  into  the  ocean  are  many  cliffs  worn  into 
rough  and  jagged  forms  by  the  dashing  of  storm  waves. 


THE   ATLANTIC   COAST 


75 


Notice,  by  the  map,  how  the  eastern  part  of  Massa- 
chusetts has  been  washed  away  and  carried  to  the  north 
and  south.  This  land  is  not  solid  rock,  but  a  part  of 
the  sandy  moraine  of  the  great  glacier.  On  that  ac- 
count it  has  been  the  more  easily  carried  away.  Notice 
also  that  the  islands  of   Marthas  Vineyard   and  Nan- 


Cliff  showing  that  the  Land  has  Risen 

The  notch  marking  the  upper  line  of  the  undermining  of  the  waters 
is  now  three  feet  above  the  water  line. 

tucket  have  a  smooth  coast  line  on  the  sides  that  are 
exposed  to  the  ocean,  while  the  coast  line  on  the  opposite 
side  is  very  irregular. 

The  principal  cause  of  the  uneven  coast  is  the  fact 
that  the  land  has  been  slowly  sinking.  The  slow  move- 
ments of  the  crust  of  the  earth  have  not  entirely  ceased. 
It  is  known  that  along  some  coasts  the  land  is  higher 
than  it  was  many  years  ago  and  that  the  ocean  does 
not  flow  over  it  so  far  as  formerly.     This  is  true  along 


76  THE   UNITED  STATES 

the  shores  of  Hudson  Bay.  But  farther  south  our 
northeastern  coast  has  settled  and  some  of  the  land  has 
sunk  below  the  water.  It  has  been  observed  that  the 
coast  of  New  Jersey  is  sinking  at  the  rate  of  about  two 
feet  in  a  century. 

Before  this  sinking  took  place,  the  land  near  the 
coast  of  New  England  contained  many  hills  and  valleys. 
As  it  gradually  sank,  the  water  flowed  into  the  valleys, 
and  the  hills  became  either  capes  extending  out  into  the 
water  or  islands  entirely  surrounded.  The  vast  number 
of  islands  along  the  coast  of  Maine  were  once  a  part  of 
the  hilly  mainland. 

The  sinking  of  the  New~  England  coast  has  been  of 
great  benefit  to  the  people.  The  bays,  some  of  which 
extend  far  inland,  provide  safe  harbors  and  make  it  pos- 
sible for  vessels  to  go  into  the  country.  This  settling  of 
the  land  has  in  many  cases  lowered  the  river  beds  below 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  hence  has  made  such  rivers 
deeper  and  wider  for  long  distances  inland.  In  some 
instances  rivers  have  been  changed  to  broad  bays.  Such 
river  valleys  are  called  drowned  valleys  or  estuaries. 

Narragansett  Bay,  the  Hudson  River ,  and  Chesapeake 
Bay  are  special  instances  of  drowned  valleys. 

1.  Which  one  of  the  New  England  States  has  no  seacoast? 

2.  Wrhich  one  has  but  eighteen  miles  of  seacoast  ? 

3.  What  part  of  an  inch  a  year  does  a  coast  settle  if  it  settles  two  feet 
in  a  century  ? 

4.  Are  there  more  islands  and  capes  along  a  coast  that  has  been  sink- 
ing or  along  a  coast  that  has  been  rising? 

5.  Why  are  there  usually  good  harbors  along  a  coast  that  has  been 
sinking? 

6.  Why  was  the  form  of  the  New  England  coast  favorable  for  the 
first  settlers? 


CITIES 


77 


7.  How  has  the  sinking  of  the  Hudson  River  valley  been  a  benefit  to 
New  York  City  V 

8.  What  cities  are  near  the  heads  of  Narragansett  Bay  and  Chesa- 
peake Bay  ? 

9.  Draw  a  line  representing  the  coast  line  of  the  Northeastern  Sec- 
tion and  locate  the  cities  that  have  good  harbors. 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

The  Hudson  River  North  of  West  Point 


17.    Cities 

In  this  Northeastern  Section  there  is  a  greater  number 
of  cities  and  large  towns  in  proportion  to  the  area  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  country.  It  would  not  be 
profitable  to  us  to  try  to  remember  many  facts  about 
them  all.  Cities  resemble  one  another  in  many  respects. 
They  have  many  streets  where  people  live,  and  other 
business  streets  on  which  crowds  pass  to  and  fro  to  the 
shops  and  offices  that  are  necessary  for  supplying  the 
wants  of  all.  In  nearly  all  cities  there  is  some  manu- 
facturing, and  commerce  is  carried  on  either  by  rail- 
roads or  by  water. 

Most  of  the  cities  of  this  section  are  manufacturing 
centers  because  of  the  great  amount  of  water  power  and 


78 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


the  abundant  supply  of  coal.  Many  may  also  be  called 
distributing  centers,  because  they  send  to  all  parts  of 
the  country  and  to  various  countries  of  the  world  manu- 
factured articles  or  the  agricultural  products  of  the 
West.  We  are  specially  interested  in  those  cities  that 
excel  others  in  some  respects  or  that  are  noted  for  par- 
ticular industries. 

New  York  is  both  the  greatest  manufacturing  city 
and  the  greatest  distributing,  or  commercial,  city  in  the 

country.  This  is  largely 
because  it  has  a  conven- 
ient location  for  carrying 
on  trade  both  with  for- 
eign countries  and  with 
the  interior  of  our  own 
country.  It  has  an  ex- 
cellent harbor  and  long 
lines  of  docks  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  ships. 
It  can  send  goods  to  the 
West  more  easily  and 
cheaply  than  many  other 
cities  can. 

The  necessity  of  build- 
ing railroads  to  the  West 
from  Atlantic  ports  across 
the  elevated  regions  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  has 
been  a  serious  difficulty.  It  costs  much  more  to  draw 
heavy  trains  up  an  ascending  grade  than  along  a  level 
route.  The  lowest  pass  for  a  railroad  across  the  East- 
ern Highlands  is  by  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk  River, 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Wall  Street  and  Trinity  Church,  New 
York 


CITIES  79 

which  flows  into  the  Hudson.  The  New  York  Cen- 
tral Railroad  has  four  parallel  tracks  running  through 
this  valley  and  connecting  with  New  York  City.  The 
Erie  Canal  runs  through  the  same  valley,  and  by  the 
waterway  of  this  canal  and  the  Hudson  River  and  by 
railway  accommodations  vast   quantities  of  goods  are 


The  Mohawk  Valley- 
Showing  the  New  York  Central  Kailroad,  the  West  Shore  Kailroad,  and  the  Erie  Canal. 

moved  to  and  from  the  great  city.  More  than  one  half 
of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  country  is  carried  on 
through  this  port. 

New  York  is,  next  to  London,  the  largest  city  in  the 
world.  The  increase  of  population  is  so  rapid  that  we 
can  hardly  comprehend  it.  Every  year  immigrants 
from  Europe  and  Asia,  sufficient  to  populate  a  city  of 
good  size,  enter  New  York  and  remain  there.  Think 
how  many  new  dwelling  houses,  school  buildings,  and 
other  accommodations  it  is  necessary  to  provide  for  such 
an  increase.  To  enable  the  throngs  of  people  to  go 
from  their  homes  to  their  places  of  business  there  are 
not  only  trolley  lines  through  the  streets,  great  bridges 


80  THE   UNITED   STATES 

over  the  rivers,  and  ferries  across  the  rivers,  but  rail- 
roads elevated  above  the  streets,  in  subways  under  the 
streets,  and  through  tunnels  under  the  rivers. 

Boston  is  the  largest  and  wealthiest  city  of  New 
England.  It  has  a  fine  harbor  and  is  next  to  New 
York  the  most  important  seaport  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 


Boston  Common,  looking  toward  the  State  House 

It  is  a  natural  distributing  center  for  the  manufactured 
goods  of  New  England  as  well  as  for  some  of  the  farm 
products  of  the  interior  of  the  country. 

The  people  of  Boston  are  noted  for  their  education 
and  refinement.  The  city  is  of  great  historic  interest. 
Everybody  knows  the  story  of  the  Boston  Tea  Party,  of 
Paul  Revere' s  Ride,  and  of  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 

Next  after  New  York,  Philadelphia  is  the  greatest 
manufacturing  city  in  the  country.  It  has  water  power 
from  the  Schuylkill  River  and  plenty  of  cheap  coal  from 
the  mines  of  Pennsylvania.  More  than  five  thousand 
persons  are  employed  in  its   carpet  factories.     It  has 


CITIES 


81 


sugar  refineries,  locomotive  works,  and  shipyards. 
Some  of  the  largest  ships  of  our  navy  are  built  there. 
It  is  at  the  head  of  the  tide  waters  of  Delaware  Bay 
and  can  be  reached  by  ocean  vessels.  Railroads  extend 
from  Philadelphia  to  the  West  through  the  lowest  passes 
in  the  mountains. 


Copyright  by  W.  II.  Ks 


Philadelphia,  showing  City  Hall  and  Office  Buildings 

Philadelphia  was  founded  by  a  company  of  Quakers 
led  by  William  Penn.  It  is  often  called  the  "  City  of 
Brotherly  Love."  Among  its  interesting  buildings  are 
Independence  Hall  and  Carpenter's  Hall,  which  are  con- 
nected with  the  early  history  of  the  country. 

Baltimore  is  near  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay  and  is 
connected  with  the  interior  of  the  country  by  railroads 
through  the  water  gap  of  the  Potomac  River.  It  is 
therefore  an  important  shipping  port. 

The  city  of  Washington,  the  capital  city  of  the  United 
States  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  finest  capital  cities  of  the  world.     It  has  become  a 


82  THE   UNITED   STATES 

large  city,  not  because  of  manufacturing  and  commerce, 
but  because  thousands  of  people  must  live  there  to 
attend  to  the  public  business  of  our  country. 

The  streets  of  many  eastern  cities  are  irregular,  nar- 
row, and  inconvenient,  but  Washington  was  planned 
from  the  beginning  for  a  national  capital  and  has  long 
and  broad  streets  and  many  beautiful  parks. 


The  Congressional  Library 

Visitors  to  the  capital  city  are  interested  in  the  pub- 
lic buildings.  The  Capitol  building,  near  the  center  of 
the  city,  is  one  of  the  largest  government  buildings  in 
the  world.  The  Congressional  Library  is  regarded  by 
many  as  the  most  beautiful  building  in  the  country. 
Among  other  noted  buildings  are  the  Patent  Office,  the 
Treasury  Building,  and  the  White  House,  which  is  the 
home  of  the  President. 

1.  Name  the  capital  city  of  each  of  the  New  England  States. 

2.  Name  the  largest  city  of  each  of  the  New  England  States. 

3.  Name  the  capital  city  of  each  of  the  other  states  of  the  Northeast- 
ern Section. 

4.  Name  the  largest  city  of  each  of  these  states. 


INTERESTING   LOCALITIES  83 

5.  Name  three  cities  on  the  Kennebec  River. 

6.  Name  five  cities  on  the  Merrimac  River. 

7.  Name  three  cities  on  the  Connecticut  River. 

8.  Name  three  cities  on  the  Hudson  River. 

9.  About  how  far  is  it  from  Boston  to  New  York  ? 

10.  About  how  far  is  it  from  New  York,  through  Philadelphia  and 
Baltimore,  to  Washington  ? 

11.  Make  a  map  of  the  Northeastern  Section  and  locate  all  the  cities 
that  have  been  mentioned. 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Baltimore  from  Federal  Hall 

1 8.    Interesting  Localities 

There  are  many  points  of  interest  in  this  section  out- 
side the  busy  cities.  Thousands  of  people  leave  the  cities 
every  summer  and  go  into  the  country,  to  the  mountains, 
or  to  the  seashore.  Thousands  also  from  other  parts  of 
the  country  spend  their  summers  in  the  East,  where 
they  can  enjoy  a  cool  climate  and  interesting  scenery. 

Many  a  farmer  in  this  region  depends  upon  summer 
boarders  for  a  large  part  of  his  income.  Summer  hotels 
and  boarding  houses,  in  ever  increasing  numbers,  are 
opened  in  the  early  summer  and  closed  again  as  the  cool- 
ness   of  autumn  comes  on.     The  population  of  many 


84  THE    UNITED   STATES 

localities  is  more  than  doubled  during  the  summer 
months.  It  is  estimated  that  as  much  as  five  million 
dollars  is  left  in  the  state  of  New  Hampshire  every 
year  by  summer  visitors. 

Northern  New  England  is  dotted  over  with  lakes 
which  were  produced  by  the  Ice  Sheet.  In  the  state  of 
Maine  there  are  over  eighteen  hundred  ponds  and  lakes. 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

In  the  Adirondack  Mountains 

The  surface  of  these,  together  with  that  of  all  the  rivers, 
amounts  to  about  one  tenth  of  the  entire  area  of  the 
state.  Most  of  these  bodies  of  water  are  among  wooded 
hills,  which  afford  beautiful  locations  for  summer  homes. 
To  the  forest  regions  of  the  northern  half  of  Maine 
many  go  to  enjoy  camp  life  and  hunting  and  fishing. 
The  region  of  Moosehead  Lake  and  that  of  the  Rangeley 
Lakes  are  popular  resorts. 

Those  who  enjoy  mountain  scenery  may  go  to  the 
White  Mountains,  the  Green  Mountains,  the  Catskills, 
or  the  Adirondacks.  At  some  points  the  White  Moun- 
tains rise  to  a  height  of  over  a  mile  above  the  level  of  the 


INTERESTING   LOCALITIES 


85 


sea.  Since  the  temperature  is  about  one  degree  lower 
for  each  three  hundred  feet  above  sea  level,  it  is  always 
cool  on  such  mountains,  even  in  the  hottest  weather. 
The  coast  line  of  Maine,  with  its  numerous  islands, 
varied  scenery,  and  cool  sea  breezes,  attracts  many 
summer  visitors.  One  of  the  most  favored  island  resorts 
is  Bar  Harbor  on  Mt.  Desert  Island. 


Bathing  Beach  at  Asbury  Park 

Farther  south,  although  the  climate  inland  is  often 
very  warm  in  summer,  the  coast  is  cool  and  comfortable. 
At  some  points  on  the  shore  and  on  islands  away  from 
the  shore  people  enough  assemble  in  the  summer  months 
to  make  cities  of  cottages  and  hotels. 

The  greater  part  of  the  New  Jersey  coast  is  a  con- 
tinuous sandy  beach.  It  is  so  near  a  number  of  large 
cities  that  it  affords  convenient  summer  homes  for  many 
thousands  of  people.  Long  Branch,  Asbury  Park,  At- 
lantic City,  and  Cape  May  are  popular  summer  resorts 
on  this  coast. 

Along  the  shore  the  wind  may  be  warm  at  times, 


86 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


when  it  is  blowing  from  the  land,  but  on  such  islands  as 
Marthas  Vineyard,  Nantucket,  and  Block  Island  there  is 
a  cooling  effect  from  the  water  on   all  sides. 

Newport,  at  the  entrance  to  Narragansett  Bay,  is  the 
most  fashionable  shore  resort  in  the  country. 


Niagara  Falls 


Other  interesting  points  in  the  state  of  New  York  are 
Saratoga,  noted  for  its  wonderful  springs  with  medici- 
nal properties,  and  Niagara  Falls,  which  is  one  of  the 
grandest  waterfalls  in  the  world. 


1.  Why  is  New  Hampshire  sometimes  called  the  "  Switzerland  of 
America  "  ? 

2.  Why  is  it  generally  cooler  in  summer  at  the  seashore  than  at  a 
distance  from  the  shore  ? 

3.  At  the  rate  of  a  fall  of  one  degree  of  temperature  for  three  hun- 
dred feet  of  elevation,  how  much  cooler  would  it  be  at  the  top  of  a 
mountain  a  mile  high  than  at  a  neighboring  inland  place  180  feet  above 
sea  level  ? 

4.  In  what  parts  of  the  state  of  Maine  are  Moosehead  Lake  and  the 
Rangeley  Lakes? 

5.  About  how  far  is  it  from  Boston  to  Bar  Harbor  ? 


REVIEW 


87 


REVIEW 

1.  Explain  how  the  mountain  ranges  of  North  America  were  formed. 

2.  Name  the  great  highland  regions  of  North  America. 

3.  Where  are  the  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain,  the  prairies,  and  the  Great 
Plains  of  the  United  States? 

4.  Explain  the  cause  of  wind. 

5.  Why  are  there  sea  breezes  in  warm  days  at  the  seashore? 

6.  Why  are  the  winters  mild  along  the  western  coast  of  the  coun- 
try? 

7.  Why  are  the  winters  cold  in  the  interior  of  the  country  ? 

8.  Explain  the  cause  of  fog,  clouds,  and  rain. 

9.  Give  three  different  ways  in  which  rain  is  caused. 

10.  Why  is  the  climate  very  dry  in  the  regions  east  of  the  western 
mountain  ranges? 

11.  What  winds  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  bring  rain? 

12.  Describe  the  cyclonic  storms  of  the  United  States. 

13.  Explain  the  work  of  the  Weather  Bureau. 

14.  What  is  meant  by  the  annual  rainfall? 

15.  State  some  of  the  customs  of  the  American  Indians. 

16.  Where  do  the  Indians  live  at  the  present  time? 

17.  What  parts  of  the  United  States  once  belonged  to  the  Spaniards  ? 

18.  Why  were  slaves  first  brought  to  this  country? 

19.  Why  did  the  people  who  settled  along  the  New  England  coast 
form  towns  or  townships  ? 

20.  Why  did  the  people 
who  settled  farther  south 
adopt  a  county  form  of 
government  ? 

21.  Name  the  five  forms 
of  government  in  this  coun- 
try. 

22.  Explain  the  cause  of 
glaciers  on  mountains. 

23.  Why  are  soil  and 
rocks  deposited  in  places 
where  glaciers  melt  ? 

24.  How  are  icebergs  formed  ? 


Boulder  left  by  the  Ice  Sheet 


25.  Describe  the  Greenland  ice  sheet. 

26.  Describe  the  great  Ice  Sheet  of  the  Glacial  Period. 

27.  What  are  boulders? 

28.  How  were  hills  formed  by  the  Ice  Sheet? 


88 


THE    UNITED   STATES 


29.  What  effects  did  the  Ice  Sheet  have  upon  the  soil  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States  ? 

30.  How  do  we  know  that  our  ponds  and  lakes  are  not  very  old? 

31.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  waterfalls? 

32.  How  did  the  Ice  Sheet  aid  manufacturing  in  the  northeastern  part 
of  the  country? 

33.  Why  has  this  section  of  the  country  a  dense  population  ? 

34.  Make  comparisons  in  population  between  some  eastern  states  and 
some  western  states. 

35.  Why  is  agriculture  of  great  importance  in  our  country? 


Seams  of  Coal  inclosed  in  Sandstone,  California 

36.  Why  does  the  soil  differ  so  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  North- 
eastern Section? 

37.  Explain  how  cream  is  separated  from  milk. 

38.  How  are  butter  and  cheese  made  ? 

39.  State  where  fruits  are  produced  in  abundance. 

40.  In  what  parts  of  this  section  are  there  extensive  forests  ? 

41.  Describe  the  business  of  lumbering  in  these  forests. 

42.  What  industry  is  causing  forests  to  be  cut  down  more  rapidly 
now  than  formerly  ? 

43.  What  are  the  Grand  Banks  ? 

44.  Why  are  there  many  fish  on  the  Grand  Banks  ? 

45.  Why  is  the  occupation  of  fishermen  dangerous? 

46.  How  are  codfish  caught  and  cured  ? 

47.  Name  several  other  kinds  of  fish  that  are  caught  in  the  ocean. 

48.  How  are  lobsters  caught  ? 


EEVIEW 


89 


49.  Tell  about  the  life  of  an  oyster. 

50.  Explain  how  layers  of  sandstone  have  been  formed. 

51.  How  has  limestone  been  formed  ? 

52.  Why  do  we  sometimes  find  the  prints  of  seashells  on  mountains  ? 

53.  Explain  how  crystalline  rock  was  formed. 

54.  Explain  why  we  are  able  to  obtain  granite  in  certain  places. 

55.  Why  are  those  granite  quarries  usually  the  most  valuable  that 
are  situated  on  the  seacoast  ? 

56.  Explain  how  quicklime  is  produced  from  limestone. 

57.  Why  is  coal  the  most  important  of  all  our  minerals  ? 


In  the  White  Mountains 

58.  How  were  layers  of  coal  formed  ? 

59.  Why  do  layers  of  coal  appear  at  the  surface  in  some  places  ? 

60.  What  kinds  of  coal  are  found  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  country  ? 

61.  Give  reasons  why  iron  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  metals. 

62.  How  has  iron  ore  been  formed  ? 

63.  Describe  the  process  of  smelting  iron  ore. 

64.  What  is  coke,  and  how  is  it  prepared  ? 

65.  State  a  method  by  which  iron  is  changed  to  steel. 

66.  What  becomes  of  many  of  the  iron  and  steel  products  of  Pitts- 
burg ? 

67.  How  were  oil  and  gas  probably  formed  in  the  rock  of  the  earth? 

68.  How  is  petroleum  obtained? 

69.  How  is  it  conveyed  from  the  wells  to  the  refineries  ? 

70.  In  what  ways  is  kerosene  sent  to  different  parts  of  the  country 
and  to  foreign  countries  ? 


90  THE   UNITED   STATES 

71.  Name  some  substances  that  are  obtained  by  refining  petroleum. 

72.  What  uses  are  made  of  natural  gas? 

73.  How  is  salt  obtained  from  mines  ? 

74.  Why  do  waves  run  up  on  the  shore  ? 

75.  How  do  waves  produce  sand  and  mud  upon  the  shore  ? 

76.  Describe  a  tidal  wave. 

77.  Explain  how  the  moon  causes  tides. 

78.  Why  is  the  tide  very  high  in  some  places  ? 

79.  Why  are  cities  on  some  rivers  located  at  the  head  of  tide  water  ? 

80.  How  have  the  waves  affected  the  eastern  part  of  Massachusetts  ? 

81.  How  have  many  islands  been  formed  along  the  NewEngland  coast? 

82.  Why  has  the  sinking  of  the  coast  been  an  advantage  to  the  pres- 
ent inhabitants  of  the  country  ? 

83.  What  is  a  drowned  valley  ? 

81.   Explain  how  the  location  of  New  York  has  helped  to  make  it  a 
very  large  city. 

85.  Tell  about  the  increase  of  the  population  of  New  York. 

86.  State  some  of  the  measures  that  have  been  taken  to  accommodate 
so  many  people. 

87.  Tell  about  the  city  of  Boston. 

88.  Name  some  interesting  historic  events  that  occurred  in  Boston. 

89.  What  advantages  for  manufacturing  has  the  city  of  Philadelphia  ? 

90.  Name  some  articles  that  are  manufactured  there. 

91.  What  famous  buildings  are  there  in  Philadelphia? 

92.  Describe  Baltimore. 

93.  Why  has  Washington  become  a  large  city  ? 

91.    Name  some  of  the  public  buildings  of  Washington. 

95.  Why  is  the  population  of   some   portions  of  the   Northeastern 
Section  much  increased  during  the  summer  months  ? 

96.  Describe  the  scenery  of  the  state  of  Maine. 

97.  Name  the  most  important  mountain  resorts  of  the  Northeastern 
Section. 

98.  Describe  the  coast  of  Maine. 

99.  Name  several  watering  places  on  the  New  Jersey  coast. 

100.  Name  some  other  summer  resorts  of  New  England. 

101.  In  what  direction  from  Boston  are  Marthas  Vineyard  and  Nan- 
tucket Islands? 

102.  In  what  direction  from  New  York  is  Block  Island? 

103.  Name  other  interesting  points  in  the  state  of  New  York. 

104.  In  what  part  of  New  York  State  is  Saratoga  ? 

105.  Between  what  lakes  is  Niagara  Falls  ? 


THE   PHYSICAL    FEATURES 


91 


THE    SOUTHERN    SECTION 


19.    The  Physical  Features 

In  passing  from  the  northeastern  part  of  the  country 
to  the  southeastern  part,  we  go  from  a  region  of  rocky 
hills  and  many  lakes  to  one  containing  a  great  amount 
of  comparatively  level  land  well  suited  to  agriculture. 

The  Appalachian  system  of  mountains  extends  nearly 
across  the  eastern  part  of  this  section.  In  the  South, 
as  in  the  North,  these  ancient  mountains  have  been  so 
worn  down  that  in 
places  they  have 
become  mere  hills, 
or  even  level  land. 
In  North  Carolina 
and  Tennessee  there 
are  still  hills  and 
mountains  of  con- 
siderable height. 
Mount  Mitchell,  the 
highest  of  the  sys- 
tem, is  more  than 
a  mile  high. 

A  wide  belt  of 
country  lying  next 
to  the  mountains  on  the  east  is  nearly  level,  or  covered 
with  low  hills  with  river  valleys  among  them.  This  sec- 
tion is  sometimes  called  the  Piedmont  Belt.  The  word 
piedmont  means  foot  of  the  mountain.  The  name  is 
given  to  the  section  because  it  lies  along  the  foot  of  the 


Copyright  by  Keystone  View  Co. 

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94 


THE    UNITED   STATES 


Appalachian  Mountains,  where  the  land  has  been  formed 
by  the  wearing  away  of  the  mountains. 

The  strip  of  country  between  the  Piedmont  Belt  and 
the  ocean  is  generally  low,  level,  and  sandy.  It  is  a 
part  of  the  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain.  All  this  land  was 
once  beneath  the  ocean.  The  soil  was  formed  by  the 
wearing  effect  of  waves  on  the  shore,  or  from  mud 
carried  into  the  ocean  by  rivers. 


A  Southern  River 

There  is  a  striking  contrast  between  the  northern 
and  southern  coasts.  While  in  the  North  the  sinking 
of  the  land  has  produced  islands,  drowned  valleys,  and 
deep  harbors,  in  the  South  the  land  has  risen  enough  to 
make  dryland  of  a  strip  of  the  ocean  bed.  Since  mud  was 
spread  evenly  by  the  waves  over  the  ocean  floor,  this  floor 
became  level  land  after  it  rose  above  the  water.  The 
even  bed  of  the  ocean  made  an  unbroken  coast  line, 
without  many  capes  and  bays.  Since  this  period  of 
rising,  the  southern  coast  has  settled  again  a  very  little. 
This  has  been  an  advantage  by  increasing  the  depth  of 
the  water  in  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  in  the  harbors.  In 
the  shallow  water  near  the  shore  the  waves  have  washed 


THE   PHYSICAL   FEATURES 


95 


up  sand  from  the  bottom  and  formed  long  islands  called 
sand  bars  or  barrier  reefs.  In  a  similar  manner  a  low 
coastal  plain  has  been  formed  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
A  large  part  of  southern  Florida  is  elevated  but  little 
above  the  sea,  and  portions  of  it  consist  of  extensive 
marshes,   or  swamps.     The  largest  of  these  is  called 


A  Florida  Swamp 

the  Everglades.  The  islands  near  the  southern  coast 
are  called  the  Florida  Keys  from  a  Spanish  word  which 
means  islands.  The  surface  of  portions  of  the  land  in 
southern  Florida  and  upon  the  Keys  has  been  formed 
by  minute  animals  called  coral  polyps.  In  parts  of  the 
ocean  where  the  water  is  warm  and  shallow  these  ani- 
mals live  in  great  numbers  attached  to  the  bottom,  and 
when  they  die  their  stony  skeletons  remain.  They  con- 
tinually grow  and  die,  and  as  the  masses  are  raised  above 
the  surface,  coral  reefs  or  coral  islands  are  formed,  which 
the  force  of  the  waves  slowly  crumbles  into  soil. 


96  THE   UNITED   STATES 

In  the  Southern  Section  we  may  include  the  states 
bordering  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
from  North  Carolina  to  Texas,  and  the  states  of  Tennes- 
see, Arkansas,  and  Oklahoma. 

These  states,  which  are  usually  called  the  Southern 
States,  are  among  the  richest  possessions  of  the  country. 
For  many  years  they  have  suffered  the  terrible  results 
of  the  Civil  War,  in  which  they  lost  a  vast  amount  of 
]3roperty  and  the  lives  of  many  of  their  bravest  young 
men.  But  since  the  close  of  that  war  they  have  ad- 
vanced rapidly  in  wealth  and  general  prosperity. 

When  the  rich  and  well-watered  lands  of  the  "  sunny 
South "  are  fully  occupied  and  cultivated,  they  will 
provide  homes  for  many  millions  of  people.  Texas  is 
the  largest  of  all  our  states.  It  is  difficult  to  realize  its 
size.  It  contains  four  times  as  much  territory  as  the 
whole  of  New  England.  It  is  larger  than  any  country 
of  Europe  except  Russia.  It  is  believed  that  it  will  at 
some  time  be  able  to  support  one  half  as  many  people 
as  the  whole  country  now  contains. 

1.  Across  which  of  the  Southern  States  do  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains extend? 

2.  What  states  south  of  Delaware  border  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ? 

3.  What  states  border  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ? 

4.  Name  several  rivers  of  the  Southern  States  that  flow  into  the  At- 
lantic Ocean. 

5.  Name  several  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

6.  Name  two  rivers  of  the  Southern  States  that  flow  into  the 
Mississippi  from  the  west. 

7.  What  river  forms  the  boundary  between  Texas  and  Mexico  ? 

8.  Why  are  there  fewer  good  harbors  in  the  Southern  States  than 
in  the  states  of  the  Northeast? 

9.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  Southern  States,  locating  the  mountains  and 
the  principal  rivers. 


COTTON 


97 


20.    Cotton 

The  leading  occupation  of  the  people  of  the  South 
is  agriculture.  The  early  settlers  of  this  region  found 
the  country  very  different  from  that  occupied  by  the 
colonists  in  the  North.  The  land  was  more  level  and 
fertile  and  the  summers  were  longer  and  warmer.  These 
conditions  were  favorable  to  agriculture,  and  for  a  long 
time  but  few  people  were  engaged  in  anything  else. 


Scene  on  a  Cotton  Plantation 

The  leading  crop  for  most  of  the  Southern  States, 
including  those  from  North  Carolina  around  the  coast 
to  Texas,  has  been  cotton.  The  cotton  plant  requires 
fertile  soil,  long,  warm  summers,  and  plenty  of  moisture, 
which  is  brought  by  winds  from  the  ocean  and  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

There  was  a  good  market  in  the  cities  of  Europe  for 
all  the  cotton  that  could  be  raised  in  the  South.  The 
great  difficulty  was  the  lack  of  people  to  do  the  work. 


98 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


To  plant  the  crop,  to  care  for  it  during  the  summer, 
and  to  harvest  the  cotton  and  prepare  it  for  market  in 
the  fall  required  the  labor  of  many  people  on  each 
plantation,  and  the  population  of  that  part  of  the 
country  was  small. 

At  that  time  slaves  from  Africa  were  sold  in  different 
parts    of    the   world,    and   the    planters    of   the    South 


COTTON  REGION      \ 


found  that  the  most  profitable  way  to  raise  cotton  was 
by  the  purchase  of  these  slaves.  The  Africans  were 
accustomed  to  a  warm  climate  and  they  could  easily  be 
taught  to  do  the  simple  work  in  the  fields. 

After  Eli  Whitney  invented  the  cotton  gin,  in  1793, 
the  business  of  raising  cotton  became  much  more  profit- 
able than  before  because  this  machine  removed  the 
cotton  seeds  very  rapidly.  After  that  time  slaves  were 
brought  into  the  country  in  great  numbers.  Although 
these  people  are  no  longer  slaves,  the  greater  proportion 
of  them  still  live  in  the  South.  In  some  of  the  agricul- 
tural regions  there  are  at  the  present  time  more  colored 
people  than  white  people. 


COTTON 


99 


We  are  all  proud  of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  South. 
The  United  States  is  the  greatest  farming  country  in 
the  world,  and  we  have  immense  quantities  of  various 
crops  to  sell,  but  we  receive  more  money  for  the  cotton 
that  we  sell  to  foreign  countries  than  for  any  other  crop. 

The  people  of  the  South  raise  about  three  fourths  of 
all  the  cotton  that  the  world  produces.  Some  is  raised 
in  India,  and  a  little 
in  Egypt,  China, 
South  America,  and 
other  countries.  For- 
eign nations  have  en- 
couraged their  people 
to  raise  cotton  upon 
their  own  territory 
instead  of  buying  so 
much  from  America, 
but  without  much 
success.  We  have  the 
best  soil  and  climate  Cotton  Gin 

for  the  cotton  crop,  and  our  planters  have  had  many 
years  experience.  For  a  long  time  to  come  we  shall 
probably  furnish  the  world  the  greater  part  of  its  supply. 

On  account  of  its  cheapness  cotton  is  used  more  than 
any  other  substance  for  clothing.  Only  about  one 
third  of  the  human  race  have  become  so  far  civilized 
as  to  clothe  themselves  completely.  As  the  remaining 
two  thirds  become  accustomed  to  wearing  more  clothing, 
the  demand  for  cotton  will  increase,  and  this  will  en- 
courage the  planters  of  the  South  to  cultivate  more  land 
and  raise  larger  crops. 


100 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


It  is  a  gratifying  thought  that  we  are  able  to  supply 
the  wants  of  so  many  people.  If  our  planters  should 
cease  to  raise  cotton,  it  would  be  a  world-wide  calamity. 
A  large  part  of  the  manufacturing  of  New  England  and 
of  the  South  would  be  ruined,  the  mills  of  Great  Britain 
would  close,  millions  of  employees  would  be  reduced  to 
distress,  and  clothing  would  become  scarce  and  expen- 
sive in  every  country  of  the  world. 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Cotton  at  the  Railway  Terminus  in  Savannah 

More  than  one  half  of  our  crop  of  cotton  is  sent  to 
other  countries.  The  manufacturers  of  Europe  are 
paying  our  planters,  upon  the  average,  more  than  a 
million  dollars  a  day  for  their  supply. 

Formerly  the  greater  part  of  the  cotton  that  remained 
in  this  country  was  manufactured  in  New  England,  but 
within  the  past  few  years  so  many  mills  have  sprung  up 
in  the  South  that  more  cotton  is  now  manufactured  in 
the  region  where  it  grows  than  in  the  North. 


COTTON 


101 


On  islands  near  the  coast  of  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia  a  special  kind  of  cotton  grows.  It  is  called 
sea-island  cotton.  The  plant  reaches  a  height  of  ten  or 
twelve  feet  and  the  fibers  are  much  longer  and  stronger 
than  those  of  the  ordinary  "  upland  cotton."  This 
variety  sells  at  a  high  price  and  is  used  for  the  finest 
threads,  laces,  and  cambrics. 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 


A  Georgia  Cotton  Mill 

Besides  the  cotton  fibers,  other  parts  of  the  plant, 
called  the  by-products,  are  becoming  more  and  more 
valuable.  Cotton-seed  oil,  obtained  by  pressing  the 
seeds,  is  used  for  making  cottolene,  which  is  a  substitute 
for  lard,  and  for  manufacturing  soap.  Much  of  it  is 
used  instead  of  olive  oil.  Miners  burn  it  in  their  lamps. 
Small  fish,  called  sardines,  are  packed  in  it.  Over  one 
hundred  million  dollars  a  year  is  now  obtained  for  oil 
and  meal  produced  from  cotton  seed  that  was  once 
thrown  away  as  useless. 

It  has  been  discovered  that  paper  can  be  made  from 
the  stalks  of  the  cotton  plant.  These  stalks,  which 
have  been  an  inconvenience  in  the  fields  after  the  har- 


102  THE   UNITED   STATES 

vest,  may  increase  the  profits  of  the  planters  by  many 
million  dollars  more. 

1.  When  our  cotton  crop  amounts  to  eleven  million  bales,  each  weigh- 
ing about  five  hundred  pounds,  about  how  many  pounds  do  we  produce? 

2.  What  would  the  value  of  this  crop  be  at  an  average  price  of  ten 
cents  a  pound? 

3.  If  the  seed  from  this  cotton  were  worth  one  hundred  million  dollars, 
about  what  part  of  the  value  of  the  cotton  would  be  equal  to  the  value 
of  the  seed  ? 

4.  Who  was  President  of  the  United  States  at  the  time  when  the 
cotton  gin  was  invented? 

5.  Name  several  New  England  cities  in  which  a  large  amount  of  cotton 
is  manufactured. 

G.  More  cotton  is  raised  in  Georgia  and  in  Texas  than  in  any  other 
states.  Name  a  seaport  in  each  of  these  states  from  which  cotton  may  be 
shipped  away. 

7.  On  what  bodies  of  w>ater  would  a  vessel  sail  in  carrying  a  load  of 
cotton  from  Galveston  to  Liverpool,  in  England  ? 

8.  Describe  the  voyage  of  a  ship  carrying  a  load  of  cotton  from  New 
Orleans  to  Hamburg,  in  Germany. 

21.   Rice  and  Sugar 

Rice  and  sugar  are  important  crops  on  some  of  the 
low,  fertile  land  along  our  southern  coast. 

Rice  is  the  chief  food  of  about  one  half  of  the  world's 
people.  Many  millions  in  China,  Japan,  and  India  live 
almost  wholly  upon  it.  It  is  more  expensive  than  other 
grains  because  more  labor  is  required  to  produce  it.  A 
comparatively  small  amount  is  raised  in  the  United 
States  because  there  is  only  a  small  portion  of  land  upon 
which  the  crop  can  be  made  profitable. 

Rice  plants  thrive  only  where  the  climate  is  warm 
and  the  soil  is  very  moist.  During  a  part  of  the 
time  while  they  are  growing  the  land  must  be  covered 
with  water.     Portions  of  the  low  coastal  plains  in  some 


EICE   AND   SUGAR 


103 


of  the  Southern  States  are  favorable  for  the  crop. 
Formerly  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  produced  more 
than  other  states,  but  in  recent  years  Louisiana  and 
Texas  have  raised  large  quantities.  On  low  and  level 
regions  in  these  states  the  land  can  be  flooded  easily 
through  canals  from  rivers  or  by  pumping  water  to  ele- 


Copyright  by  Keystone  View  Co. 

Cultivating  Rice  in  South  Carolina 

vated  positions  from  which  it  will  flow  over  the  fields. 
In  some  localities  water  for  the  rice  crop  is  obtained 
from  artesian  wells. 

When  the  crop  is  ripe,  the  water  is  drawn  off,  and  the 
harvesting  is  done  by  teams  and  machines  like  those 
used  in  wheat  fields  on  the  prairies.  As  the  grain  comes 
from  the  thresher  it  has  a  dark  color  on  account  of  the 
hulls  in  which  the  seeds  are  tightly  wrapped.  Before 
it  is  ready  for  the  market  it  is  run  through  machines 
that  remove  the  hulls  and  polish  the  seeds. 

Sugar  was  once  made  almost  entirely  from  sugar  cane, 
and  since  that  plant  requires  a  long,  hot  summer,  it  could 
be  raised  only  in  very  warm  regions  of  the  earth.    Sugar 


104 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


forms  a  part  of  the  substance  of  a  great  variety  of  vege- 
tables and  fruits  and  might  be  obtained  from  them  if  the 
process  were  not  too  expensive.  Many  years  ago  it  was 
discovered  in  Germany  that  sugar  could  be  made  profit- 
ably from  beets,  and  since  beets  will  thrive  in  a  cool 
climate,  that  discovery  has  greatly  increased  the  territory 
in  which  sugar  may  be  produced.    Countries  situated  in 


Copyright  by  Keystone  View  Co. 

A  Field  of  Sugar  Beets  in  Colorado 

temperate  regions  were  once  obliged  to  purchase  all 
their  sugar  from  abroad.  Many  of  these  are  now  able 
to  produce  at  least  a  portion  of  what  they  consume. 

More  sugar  is  used  in  the  United  States  than  in  any 
other  country.  The  average  American  citizen  consumes 
more  than  one  half  of  his  weight  in  sugar  every  year. 
But  we  produce  in  our  home  country  only  a  small  part 
of  this  sugar.     The  money  that  we  receive  for  all  the 


EICE   AND   SUGAR 


105 


wheat  that  we  sell  to  other  countries  is  not  sufficient  to 
pay  for  the  sugar  that  we  are  obliged  to  buy.  This  is 
because  we  have  not  yet  raised  a  very  large  amount  of 
beet  sugar  and  because  there  is  only  a  small  amount  of 
land  in  the  country  where  sugar  cane  will  grow  well. 

Since  the  island 
of  Porto  Rico,  the 
Hawaiian  Islands, 
and  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  have 
come  into  our 
possession,  we 
have  considerably 
increased  the 
amount  of  our 
territory  upon 
which  sugar  cane 
will  grow. 

We   now   raise 
sugar 


Planting  Sugar  Cane 


more   beet 

than  cane  sugar,  and  the  time  will  probably  come  when 
we  shall  buy  less  than  we  do  now  from  other  countries. 
Most  of  our  cane  sugar  is  produced  in  Louisiana  on  the 
plains  of  the  valley  and  delta  of  the  Mississippi.  Many 
of  the  plantations  there  are  very  large.  Some  of  them 
extend  for  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  along  the  banks  of 
the  river. 

The  crop  is  raised  by  burying  stalks  of  cane  in  fur- 
rows. Sprouts  spring  up  from  these  and  become  plants 
resembling  Indian  corn.  When  the  crop  is  mature,  the 
tall  stalks  are  cut  down,  loaded  on  cars,  and  drawn  to 


106  THE    UNITED    STATES 

the  mill,  which  is  usually  erected  uear  the  center  of  the 
estate.  Here  the  cane  is  run  through  rollers  which 
press  out  the  juice  so  completely  that  the  remaining 
part  is  dry  enough  to  use  as  fuel  for  the  fires. 

The  juice  is  then  boiled  until  the  water  escapes  from 
it  and  there  remains  a  mixture  of  brown  sugar  and 
molasses.  The  refuse  molasses,  which  is  separated 
from  the  sugar,  is  of  very  poor  quality  and  is  used  as 
food  for  stock  or  for  certain  manufacturing  processes. 
Molasses  and  sirup,  which  are  used  for  cooking  and  for 
the  table,  are  prepared  from  the  pure  juice  of  the  cane. 

Dark-colored  sugar,  produced  in  this  manner,  is 
called  raw  sugar.  It  must  be  purified,  or  refined, 
before  it  is  ready  for  the  market.  Since  a  sugar  re- 
finery is  very  expensive,  much  of  the  sugar  produced 
on  the  islands  in  tropical  regions  and  on  the  smaller 
plantations  in  the  South  is  first  sold  in  the  raw  state 
and  then  shipped  to  refineries.  On  some  of  the 
larger  plantations  refining  is  done  in  the  mills  where 
the  sugar  is  first  produced. 

1.  How  many  tons  of  sugar  per  year  would  ninety  million  people 
consume,  if  each  should  consume  seventy -five  pounds,  upon  the  average? 

2.  What  would  be  the  value  of  this  sugar  at  five  cents  per  pound  ? 

3.  Name  several  ports  to  which  imported  raw  sugar  may  be  taken  to 
be  refined. 

4.  What  states  would  a  vessel  pass  in  carrying  a  load  of  rice  from 
Charleston  to  New  York  ? 

5.  Find  about  how  long  the  voyage  of  a  ship  would  be  from  Galves- 
ton to  Boston. 

6.  On  what  bodies  of  water  would  a  vessel  sail  in  taking  a  load  of 
sugar  from  New  Orleans  to  Baltimore  ? 

7.  Make  a  map  of  those  states  of  the  Southern  Section  that  border  on 
the  coast,  showing  the  largest  rivers  and  the  cities  from  which  cotton, 
rice,  and  sugar  may  be  shipped. 


FORESTS 


107 


22.    Forests 

One  of  the  extensive  forest  regions  of  the  country  is 
in  the  South.  The  most  common  southern  tree  is  the 
pine.  A  pine  belt  about  one  hundred  miles  wide  extends 
along  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  On  portions  of  this  Coastal  Plain  the  land  is 
too  sandy  for  agricultural  crops,  but  is  well  adapted  to 
the  growth  of  pine  forests. 


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Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Southern  Pine  Woods 

Lumber  from  the  southern  pine  is  much  harder  and 
heavier  than  that  from  the  white  pine  of  the  North. 
Much  of  it  is  used  in  the  North  for  floors  and  the  in- 
terior finish  of  buildings. 

The  pine  trees  of  the  South,  that  are  known  as 
"Georgia  pine,"  grow  very  tall  and  straight.  Many  are 
used  for  the  masts  of  ships  and  for  heavy  timbers. 

In  the  absence  of  water  power  on  these  level  plains, 
much  of  the  timber  is  sawed  into  lumber  by  portable 
steam    mills,    which    are    set    up    in    the    forests    and 


108 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


moved  about  from  place  to  place.  The  logs  are  drawn 
to  these  mills  on  wagons  or  on  cars,  and  the  lumber  is 
shipped  away  on  railroads  or  on  river  boats. 

The  pine  forests  yield  a  great  amount  of  tar,  pitch, 
resin,    and     turpentine.       These    products    are    called 

"naval  stores."  Tar  is  ob- 
tained by  heating  pine  wood, 
and  causing  the  gummy  sap 
to  flow  out.  It  is  used  for 
calking  the  sides  and  decks 
of  vessels  to  prevent  leaking, 
and  in  making  ropes  for  the 
rigging  of  vessels. 

Turpentine  is  prepared 
from  the  sap  that  runs  under 
the  bark  of  pine  trees.  Strips 
of  bark  are  cut  from  the  trees, 
and  the  sticky  sap  runs  down 
and  fills  notches,  called  "  box- 
es," that  are  cut  in  the  wood, 
or  flows  into  cups.  Every 
few  days  it  is  collected  and 
taken  to  the  distillery.  There 
it  is  mixed  with  water  and  heated  in  a  great  kettle. 
The  sap  consists  of  resin  and  turpentine.  The  heat 
converts  the  turpentine  into  vapor,  which  rises  and 
passes  through  a  tube.  The  tube  is  kept  cold  by  a 
stream  of  water,  and  as  the  vapor  cools  it  changes  to 
liquid  again  and  a  stream  of  turpentine  flows  out  at  the 
end.  The  resin  remains  in  the  kettle,  and  both  turpen- 
tine and  resin  are  sent  to  market  in  barrels. 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Turpentine  Boxes  and  Cups 


FORESTS 


109 


Turpentine  is  used  for  making  varnish  and  mixing 
paints.    Resin  is  largely  used  in  varnish  and  in  soap. 

A  tract  of  pine  forest  from  which  turpentine  and 
resin  are  obtained  is  called  a  turpentine  "  farm."  The 
size  of  a  farm  is  reckoned  in  the  number  of  "  boxes." 
A  farm  may  consist  of  many  thousand,  or  even  several 
hundred  thousand  boxes.  The  value  of  the  products 
of  these 
farms  has 
amounted 
to  over 
twenty-five 
million  dol- 


Copyright  by  Keystone  View  Co. 

Resin  on  Wharf  at  Savannah 


lars  in  a 
single  year. 
At  first 
the  busi- 
ness of  tur- 
p  en  t  i  n  e 
farming 
was  con- 
fined chiefly  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  the  products  were 
mostly  shipped  from  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  But 
after  a  time  trees  from  which  tar  products  are  taken 
become  exhausted  and  die,  and  the  farming  must  be 
transferred  to  other  regions.  After  the  business  declined 
in  the  forests  of  South  Carolina,  Savannah  became  the 
chief  center  of  trade  in  tar,  turpentine,  and  resin. 
At  present  turpentine  farming  is  carried  on  chiefly  in 
the  states  along  the  Gulf  coast,  and  more  naval  stores 
are  shipped  from  Pensacola  than  from  any  other  city. 


110 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


In  the  mountainous  regions  of  the  South  there  are 
many  oak  trees.  The  lumber  from  these  is  harder  and 
stronger  than  pine.  The  bark  of  oak  trees  is  used  for 
tanning  hides.  In  the  North,  hemlock  bark  is  much 
used  for  that  purpose.  The  acid  of  hemlock  bark  gives 
leather  a  red  color,  but  oak  bark  produces  a  tan  color. 

Cypress  trees  from  southern  swamps  are  valuable  for 
lumber.     Cypress  shingles  will  last  for  many  years. 

The  palmetto  tree,  the  name  of  which  means  small 
palm  tree,  is  very  common  in  the  South.  South  Carolina 
is  often  called  the  "  Palmetto  State."     Another  common 

tree  is  the  live  oak, 
the  branches  of  which 
are  usually  covered 
with  mosses  hanging 
in  long  festoons. 


1.  A  large  amount  of 
lumber  is  manufactured  at 
Macon  and  at  Montgomery. 
Why  are  these  places  favor- 
able for  that  business  ? 

2.  A  large  amount  also 
is  manufactured  at  Mobile 
and  at  Chattanooga.  Lo- 
cate these  cities. 

3.  Hard  pine  lumber  is 
shipped  north  from  Charles- 
ton, Savannah,  Jacksonville, 
and  Pensacola.  Locate  each 
of  these. 

4.    Oak   and  other   hard 
Through  what  states  would 


Palmettos 


wood  lumber  is  shipped  from  Memphis. 

a  carload  probably  pass  on  its  way  to  Philadelphia  ? 

5.  Wrhy  are  large  quantities  of  naval  stores  shipped  from  Pensacola? 

6.  Name  a  number  of  purposes  for  which  oak  lumber  is  used. 


VARIOUS   PRODUCTS 


111 


23.    Various  Products 

For  many  years  little  besides  cotton  was  produced  upon 
most  plantations  in  the  South ;  but  the  planters  are 
learning  that  there  is  greater  profit  in  raising  a  variety 
of  crops.  Various  kinds  of  plant  food  are  slowly  pre- 
pared in  the  soil  by  the  processes  of  nature,  and  these 
different  kinds  of  food  are  needed  for  different  crops. 


A  Tobacco  Field 

Land  that  has  become  so  exhausted  that  it  will  not  yield 
a  profitable  crop  of  cotton  may  produce  an  excellent 
crop  of  some  other  kind.  After  two  or  three  years  it 
maybe  prepared  to  support  a  good  crop  of  cotton  again. 
The  flavor  of  tobacco  depends  so  much  upon  climate 
and  the  quality  of  the  soil  that  it  is  a  special  crop  in 
particular  localities.  A  large  amount  is  produced  in 
Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina. 
The  manufacture  of  cigars  is  the  most  important  indus- 
try of  Key  West,  which  is  the  largest  city  of  Florida. 


112  THE   UNITED   STATES 

Tobacco  for  the  purpose  is  obtained  from  Havana  on 
the  island  of  Cuba. 

Much  Indian  corn  and  wheat  are  now  raised  on 
southern  plantations.  Considerable  corn  is  used  in  the 
South  for  food,  and  more  for  fattening  swine. 

Sweet  potatoes  are  a  special  crop  in  North  Carolina, 
and  many  peanuts  are  produced  in  North  Carolina  and 
Virginia.     Norfolk  is  the  leading  peanut  market  in  the 


An  Orange  Grove  in  Florida 

country.  The  peanut  plant  is  very  peculiar.  Pods  first 
form  on  the  ends  of  stalks,  which  then  bend  down  and 
bury  the  pods  in  the  earth.  After  they  ripen  the  pea- 
nuts are  dug  up  and  dried. 

Many  southern  planters  raise  early  vegetables  for 
northern  markets.  The  states  of  the  Central  West  obtain 
their  supplies  mostly  from  Mississippi  and  Louisiana, 
and  those  of  the  Northeast  from  Florida  and  Georgia. 

Parts  of  the  South  produce  great  quantities  of  fruit. 
Florida  begins  to  send  strawberries  to  northern  markets 


VARIOUS   PRODUCTS 


113 


as  early  in  winter  as  December.  Pineapples  flourish  on 
the  Florida  Keys.  Sweet  Florida  oranges,  which  grow 
in  the  Indian  River  section,  have  a  wide  reputation. 
Georgia  is  noted  for  its  fine  peaches. 

Many  cattle  are  pastured  on  parts  of  the  Coastal  Plain 
in  Georgia  and  Florida,  among  scattering  forest  trees. 
Mules  are  well  suited  to  draw  loads  in  warm  weather, 


Cattle  on  a  Texas  Ranch 

and  many  of  these  are  raised.    Kentucky  and  Tennessee 
produce  large  numbers  of  mules  and  horses. 

The  western  part  of  Texas,  where  the  climate  is  too 
dry  for  agriculture,  is  devoted  to  grazing,  and  large  herds 
of  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared  upon  the  plains.  The 
"  Llano  Estacado,"  or  staked  plain,  which  is  now  occu- 
pied by  ranches,  was  once  the  winter  feeding  ground  of 
great  herds  of  buffaloes.     It  is  about  five  hundred  miles 


114  THE   UNITED   STATES 

long  from  north  to  south  and  nearly  three  hundred  miles 
wide.  It  received  its  name  because  it  is  so  level  and  so 
broad  that  travelers  were  liable  to  lose  their  way  upon  it 
and  routes  of  travel  were  marked  with  stakes. 

The  South,  like  Pennsylvania,  has  its  coal  and  iron  re- 
gion. In  the  vicinity  of  Birmingham,  in  Alabama,  coal, 
iron,  and  limestone  are  easily  obtained  and  pig  iron  is 
produced  very  cheaply. 

A  substance  called  phosphate  rock  is  found  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and  in  the  central 
part  of  Florida.  It  is  the  fossil  remains  of  the  bones  of 
ancient  animals.  Much  of  this  rock  is  shipped  to  the 
North  and  to  Europe,  where  it  is  used  as  a  fertilizer. 

In  Georgia  there  are  valuable  quarries  of  granite  and 
marble.  Many  public  buildings  in  the  United  States  are 
made  of  Georgia  marble. 

The  state  of  Oklahoma  has  a  great  variety  of  natural 
wealth.  It  was  not  open  to  white  settlers  till  the  year 
1889,  but  it  is  already  well  covered  with  prosperous 
farm  homes  and  contains  many  thriving  towns  and 
cities.  In  addition  to  its  wealth  in  fertile  land  the  state 
contains  rich  beds  of  coal  and  petroleum. 

1.  Durham,  in  North  Carolina,  has  large  tobacco  factories.  In  what 
part  of  the  state  is  it  ? 

2.  Where  is  Key  West  situated  ? 

3.  Through  what  states  would  peaches  probably  pass  by  train  from 
Georgia  to  New  York  City  ? 

4.  In  what  part  of  Virginia  is  Norfolk? 

5.  Many  cattle  are  shipped  from  Dallas  and  Fort  Worth.  In  what 
part  of  Texas  are  they  ? 

6.  There  are  rich  oil  wells  near  Beaumont.    In  what  part  of  Texas  is  it? 

7.  There  is  a  rich  iron  region  around  Chattanooga,  in  Tennessee. 
About  how  far  is  it  from  Birmingham  ? 


CITIES 


115 


24.    Cities 

There  are  fewer  large  cities  in  the  South  than 
in  the  North.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
people  of  the  South  have  engaged  in  agriculture  instead 
of  manufacturing  and  commerce.  In  agricultural  re- 
gions there  are  always  towns  or  cities  where  the  farmers 
or  planters  may  sell  their  crops  and  may  buy  the  sup- 
plies that  they  need,  but  these  purposes  alone  do  not 


Jackson  Square,  New  Orleans 

require  very  large  cities.  Cities  that  become  large  are 
usually  manufacturing  centers  and  distributing  centers. 
Another  reason  for  the  small  number  of  cities  in  the 
South  is  the  fact  that  there  are  not  so  many  good  har- 
bors along  the  southern  coast  as  there  are  along  the 
northern  coast. 

New  Orleans,  the  chief  city  of  the  South,  is  situated 
about  one  hundred  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Mis- 


116 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


sissippi,  at  a  point  where  only  a  narrow  neck  of  land 
separates  the  river  from  Lake  Pontchartrain.  Large 
ocean  vessels  can  proceed  up  the  river  as  far  as  New 
Orleans,  but  not  much  farther.  Above  New  Orleans  the 
shipping  is  by  barges  and  broad  flatboats,  which  are  able 
to  move  in  very  shallow  water. 

The  great  amount  of  mud  that  the  Mississippi  deposits 
in  its  bed  has  been  a  hindrance  to  navigation  from  New 


Mississippi  Jetties 

- 

Orleans  to  the  Gulf,  but  this  difficulty  has  been  over- 
come by  an  ingenious  device.  Jetties  have  been  built 
out  from  both  banks  toward  the  middle  of  the  river. 
These  make  the  river  narrower  and  cause  it  to  flow  fast 
enough  to  carry  the  mud  into  the  Gulf. 

New  Orleans  has  several  interesting  peculiarities.  It 
was  founded  by  the  French,  and  the  people  in  the  French 
quarter  of  the  city  retain  many  of  their  old  customs. 
The  Mississippi,  in  its  lower  course,  has  deposited  so 
much  mud  upon  its  bed  and  along  its  banks  that  its 
surface  is  higher  than  that  of  the  surrounding  country. 
For  this  reason  embankments,  called  levees,  have  been 


CITIES 


117 


built  along  the  river.  They  are  carefully  repaired  to 
keep  the  Mississippi  within  bounds  in  time  of  high 
water.  The  slightest  leak  through  the  levees  would 
cut  away  the  soft  soil  very  rapidly,  and  if  not  repaired, 
would  soon  flood  the  entire  city. 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

On  the  Levee,  New  Orleans 

Everywhere  in  the  city  at  a  short  distance  below  the 
surface  the  soil  is  filled  with  water.  The  houses  can 
have  no  cellars,  and  the  graves  in  the  cemeteries  are 
built  of  stone  above  ground. 

New  Orleans  not  only  contains  cotton  factories  and 
large  sugar  refineries,  but  is  becoming  one  of  the  largest 
shipping  centers  of  the  country.  It  is  the  natural  center 
for  the  commerce  of  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley.  If 
we  were  to  take  a  trip  up  the  Mississippi  above  New 


118 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


Orleans,  for  hundreds  of  miles  along  the  way  we  should 
meet  flatboats,  or  barges  drawn  by  flatboats.  They  would 
be  loaded  with  bales  of  cotton  from  the  towns  and  land- 
ings along  the  banks,  or  with  coal  from  Pennsylvania, 
brought  down  from  Pittsburg  on  the  Ohio  River,  or  with 


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wheat  and  corn  from  the  Missouri  River  or  the  upper 
Mississippi.  At  New  Orleans  cotton  and  grain  are  loaded 
upon  ocean  vessels  and  shipped  to  Europe. 

It  is  said  that  if  you  kick  a  barrel  of  flour  at  Minne- 
apolis, it  will  roll  to  New  Orleans.  Of  course,  this  is 
not  true,  but  it  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  slopes  gently  downward  from  the  state 
of  Minnesota  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  easier  to 
send  the  products  of  the  great  farming  regions  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  to  the  sea  by  this  route  than  by  rail- 
roads that  cross  the  Eastern  Highlands. 

The  advantage  secured  by  shipping  goods  out  of  the 
country  by  way  of  the  Gulf  has  made  Galveston,  as  well 
as  New  Orleans,  one  of  the  leading  ports  of  the  coun- 


CITIES 


119 


try.     New  Orleans  and  Galveston  rank  next  after  New 
York  among  our  exporting  centers. 

Galveston  is  situated  upon  one  end  of  an  island  near 
the  coast  and  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  cause- 
way. A  great  storm  swept  over  Galveston  in  1900, 
destroying  many  lives  and  laying  a  part  of  the  city  in 
ruins.  Since  that  time  a  sea  wall  has  been  built,  which, 
it  is  hoped,  will  prevent  such  a  disaster  in  the  future. 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Charleston  from  St.  Michael's  Church 


Mobile  has  the  only  landlocked  harbor  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  Its  harbor  is  so  safe  that  no  vessel  has  ever 
been  lost  in  it. 

Gulf  port  and  Pensacola  are  now  ranked  among  the 
leading  ports  of  the  South. 

Savannah  has  a  deep  harbor,  eighteen  miles  from  the 
sea.  The  city  contains  many  parks  filled  with  tropical 
trees,  and  is  called  the  "  Forest  City."  It  is  an  inter- 
esting fact  that  the  first  steamboat  to  cross  the  Atlantic 
sailed  from  Savannah  in  the  year  1819. 


120 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


Charleston  has  a  good  harbor  and,  lying  between  two 
rivers,  has  a  water  front  on  three  sides. 

Atlanta  is  situated  near  the  southern  end  of  the  Blue 
Ridge  Mountains,  and  because  railroads  can  be  built  easily 

from  that  point  to  the 
West,  it  is  an  important 
railroad  center.  It  is  often 
called  the  "Gate  City." 

Since  the  time  of  the 
Civil  War  manufacturing 
has  increased  rapidly  in 
the  South.  There  is  water 
power  for  this  purpose  on 
several  rivers  that  flow 
east  from  the  mountains 
to  the  sea.  Where  these 
rivers  pass  from  the  Pied- 
mont Belt  to  the  Coastal 
Plain  the  water  digs  out 
the  sandy  soil  of  the 
Coastal  Plain  faster  than 
it  wears  down  the  harder 
bed  farther  west.  This 
causes  rapids  or  falls  in  the  rivers,  and  the  border  line 
along  which  the  falls  occur  is  called  the  Fall  Line. 

A  line  of  manufacturing  cities  extends  from  New 
Jersey  to  Alabama  along  the  Fall  Line.  On  this  line 
are  the  cities  of  Columbia,  Augusta,  Macon,  and  Mont- 
gomery. It  is  claimed  that  there  is  water  power  enough 
in  the  state  of  Georgia  alone  to  drive  all  the  mills  in 
the  United  States. 


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REVIEW 


121 


A  Pineapple  Field  in  Florida 

1.  St.   Augustine  was  founded  in  1565.     It  is  the  oldest  town  in  the 
United  States.     About  how  far  is  it  from  Jacksonville? 

2.  Palm  Beach  is  a  popular  winter  resort.    In  what  part  of  Florida  is  it? 
8.   At  Key  West  and  Tampa  there  are  many  tobacco  factories  in 

which  cigars  are  made  from  Cuban  tobacco.     Locate  those  cities. 

4.  Asheville,  North  Carolina,  is  a  famous  health  resort.     Is  it  in  a 
mountainous  district  or  a  level  district  ? 

5.  At  Hot   Springs,  Arkansas,  there   are  sulphur  waters  which  are 
beneficial  in  certain  diseases.     In  what  part  of  the  state  is  it  ? 

6.  Name  the  capital  city  of  each  of  the  Southern  States  that  border 
on  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

7.  Name  the  largest  city  of  each  of  the  Southern  States  that  border 
on  the  Atlantic. 

8.  Name  the  capital  city  of  each  of  the  states,  west  of  Florida,  that 
border  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

9.  Name  the  largest  city  of  each  of  these  Gulf  states. 

10.   Name  the  capital  city  and  the  largest  city  of  each  of  the  remain- 
ing states  of  the  southern  group. 


REVIEW 

1.  How  do  the  physical  features  of  the   southeastern  part  of  the 
country  differ  from  those  of  the  northeastern  part  ? 

2.  What  is  the  Piedmont  Belt? 


122  THE   UNITED   STATES 

3.  Explain  the  formation  of  the  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain. 

4.  How  do  the  northern  and  southern  coasts  differ? 

5.  What  are  barrier  reefs  ? 

6.  What  are  the  Florida  Keys? 

7.  How  are  coral  reefs  formed? 

8.  Give  comparisons  to  illustrate  the  size  of  the  state  of  Texas. 

9.  Explain  how  the  cotton  crop  increased  slavery  in  the  South. 

10.  Name  some  foreign  countries  in  which  cotton  is  raised. 

11.  What  part  of  the  cotton  of  the  world  do  we  raise? 

12.  Why  is  so  much  cotton  used  in  the  world  ? 

13.  What  would  happen  if  our  planters  should  cease  to  raise  cotton  ? 

14.  How  much  cotton  do  we  export  ? 

15.  What  part  of  our  cotton  manufacturing  is  done  in  the  South? 

16.  Describe  sea-island  cotton. 

17.  What  by-products  are  obtained  from  cotton  ? 

18.  How  extensively  is  rice  used  in  the  world? 

19.  Describe  the  method  of  raising  rice. 

20.  Why  has  the  discovery  of  the  process  of  making  beet  sugar  been 
a  great  advantage  ? 

21.  How  is  sugar  cane  raised? 

22.  How  is  sugar  manufactured  from  sugar  cane  ? 

23.  Tell  about  the  lumber  of  southern  forests. 

24.  Name  some  uses  that  are  made  of  this  lumber. 

25.  How  is  pine  tar  produced? 

26.  Explain  the  process  of  obtaining  turpentine  and  resin. 

27.  For  what  purposes  are  turpentine  and  resin  used? 

28.  Where  is  turpentine  farming  chiefly  carried  on  ? 

29.  Describe  other  forest  trees  of  the  South. 

30.  AVhat  southern  states  produce  the  most  tobacco? 

31.  How  do  peanuts  grow  ? 

32.  What  parts  of  the  South  produce  large  quantities  of  fruit  ? 

33.  Describe  the  Staked  Plain  of  Texas. 

34.  Where  in  the  South  are  coal  and  iron  ore  obtained  ? 

35.  What  is  phosphate  rock  ? 

36.  Why  are  there  fewer  large  cities  in  the  South  than  in  the  North  ? 

37.  Describe  the  location  of  New  Orleans. 

38.  Explain  the  use  of  jetties  in  the  Mississippi  River. 

39.  State  some  interesting  peculiarities  of  New  Orleans. 

40.  Why  is  New  Orleans  a  great  shipping  center  ? 

41.  Describe  the  city  of  Galveston. 

42.  Name  several  other  ports  along  the  southern  coast. 


THE   PHYSICAL   FEATURES  123 

THE   CENTRAL   SECTION 

25.    The  Physical  Features 

When  the  people  who  had  colonized  the  Atlantic 
coast  made  their  way  farther  west  through  gaps  in  the 
Appalachian  Mountain  System,  they  came  to  a  region 
surprisingly  rich  and  inviting.     Among  the  rocky  hills 


The  Untamed  Prairie 

where  they  had  first  settled  they  had  been  obliged  to 
clear  the  land  of  forests  and  large  stones  in  order  to 
make  crops  grow.  Even  after  all  the  hard  labor  that 
this  required,  they  usually  had  only  hilly  and  rocky 
land  that  was  not  very  fertile. 

West  of  the  mountains  they  found  broad  regions  of 
comparatively  level  land,  containing  no  trees,  but  thickly 
covered  with  grass,  and  very  fertile. 

Beginning  with  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  table- 


of  the  WoodS 

Grafton  I 
\JpeviIs  Lake 
jDevils  LakT* 

^-^GrandFWkS 


DA 

Jar 


0 


S     like 


Jrarga] 

\Falls\         xBraine/d^^ 


Aberdeen 


120  THE    UNITED    STATES 

lands,  the  surface  of  the  Great  Central  Plain  gradually 
slopes  downward,  for  hundreds  of  miles,  to  the  Missis- 
sippi River.  Beyond  the  Mississippi  it  gradually  rises 
again,  for  hundreds  of  miles,  to  the  foot  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

This  vast  tract  of  agricultural  land,  reaching  across 
the  country  from  our  northern  boundary  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  is  the  richest  farming  region  in  the  world.  A 
good  part  of  the  wealth  of  which  our  country  boasts 
has  come  from  the  bountiful  crops  of  our  great  farm. 

While  the  only  inhabitants  were  Indians,  all  this 
territory  served  no  useful  purpose  except  as  a  pasture 
ground  for  herds  of  buffaloes.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  before  the  year  1872  there  were  as  many  as  eight 
million  of  these  animals  between  the  Mississippi  River 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Immense  herds  of  them 
moved  north  or  south  from  one  feeding  ground  to 
another.  In  winter  they  found  pasturage  in  the  South, 
on  the  great  plains  of  Texas.  Their  skins,  covered 
with  thick,  woolly  hair,  were  valuable  for  winter  coats, 
and  as  the  West  was  explored  and  occupied  by  white 
settlers  the  buffaloes  were  hunted  and  slain  so  rapidly 
that  they  were  nearly  all  destroyed  before  measures 
were  taken  to  protect  them.  Only  a  few  hundred  of 
these  animals  now  exist.  Most  of  these  are  carefully 
kept  in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park  and  in  other 
public  and  private  parks  of  the  country. 

The  great  central  section  of  the  country  is  mostly 
free  from  mountain  ranges  because  in  the  wrinkling  of 
the  earth's  crust  no  high  ridges  were  raised  here,  as  in 
the  eastern  and  western  parts.     In  the  formation  of  the 


THE   PHYSICAL   FEATURES 


127 


continent,  as  the  land  gradually  rose  above  the  surface 
of  the  ocean  or  settled  below  it,  this  section  was  raised 
or  lowered  more  uniformly,  instead  of  being  thrown  up 
in  ridges.  In  the  rock  layers  of  the  central  lowland 
there  are  found  fossils  of  shells  and  fish  which  were 
once  in  the  ocean. 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Buffalo  Herd  in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park 

The  only  exceptions  to  the  uniformity  of  this  great 
plain  are  two  groups  of  low  mountains  called  the  Black 
Hills  and  the  Ozark  Mountains. 

The  soil  in  the  southern  part  of  this  section  has  been 
mostly  formed  either  by  the  slow  decay  of  the  rocks 
underneath  or  from  soil  washed  down  from  other  regions. 

In  the  northern  part  the  soil  was  largely  the  effect 
of  the  Ice  Sheet.  The  ice  scraped  away  and  carried 
farther  south  the  soil  that  had  been  previously  formed, 
but  left  in  its  place,  when  it  melted  away,  a  deep,  rich 
layer  made  by  the  grinding  of  rocks  as  the  ice  moved 
down  from  regions  farther  north.   The  rocks  over  which 


128  THE   UNITED   STATES 

the  glacier  passed  in  the  central  part  of  the  country 
were  softer  than  those  in  the  East  and  were  more  easily 
ground  into  soil.  This  accounts  for  the  larger  amount 
of  good  soil  left  by  the  Ice  Sheet  in  the  states  of  the 
Central  West. 

Other  effects  of  the  Ice  Sheet  here  were  similar  to 
those  in  the  East,  except  that  fewer  waterfalls  were 
produced.  The  Great  Lakes  and  a  large  number  of 
smaller  lakes  were  formed  by  the  ice.  There  are  about 
ten  thousand  lakes  in  the  state  of  Minnesota  alone. 

Different  parts  of  the  Great  Central  Plain  have 
special  names.  A  large  region  in  the  central  part  is 
called  the  Prairies.  A  broad  strip  of  more  elevated  land 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  extends  entirely 
across  the  country  from  north  to  south,  is  called  the 
Great  Plains. 

1.  How  did  the  rivers  that  flow  across  the  Appalachian  ranges  to- 
ward the  east  make  it  easier  for  the  settlers  to  travel  across  the  moun- 
tains ? 

2.  Give  the  names  of  several  of  these  rivers. 

3.  Why  is  it  generally  cooler  in  winter  and  warmer  in  summer  in  the 
central  part  of  the  country  than  in  regions  near  the  coast  ? 

4.  What  effect  do  you  think  the  Great  Lakes  have  upon  the  climate 
of  the  regions  near  them  in  winter  and  in  summer? 

5.  Name  in  order  the  states  that  border  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

6.  What  two  rivers  unite  to  form  the  Ohio  River? 

7.  What  states  border  on  the  Ohio  River  on  the  north  and  on  the 
south  ? 

8.  Name  the  states  that  border  on  the  Mississippi  River  on  the  east. 

9.  Name  the  states  that  border  on  the  Mississippi  on  the  west. 

10.  Name  in  their  order  the  row  of  states  immediately  west  of  those 
that  border  on  the  Mississippi. 

11.  Make  a  map  of  the  states  that  border  on  the  Ohio  River. 


MISSISSIPPI   RIVER   SYSTEM 


129 


26.    The  Mississippi  River  System 

The  Great  Central  Plain,  together  with  the  moun- 
tain slopes  on  either  side,  contains  one  of  the  largest 
river  systems  of  the  world.  The  changes  wrought  by 
rivers  on  the  face  of  nature,  and  the  effects  of  such 
changes  upon  the  welfare  of  mankind,  are  very  impor- 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Scene  on  the  Upper  Mississippi 

tant.  We  should  be  particularly  interested  in  the  effects 
of  our  own  great  river,  which  the  Indians  called  the 
"  Father  of  Waters." 

The  Mississippi  River  is  2600  miles  long,  and  the 
Missouri  3100  miles  long.  The  combined  length  of 
the  Missouri  and  that  part  of  the  Mississippi  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Missouri  is  4350  miles.  If  we  consider 
the  Missouri  and  the  lower  part  of  the  Mississippi  as 
one  continuous  river,  we  may  say  that  it  is  the  longest 
river  in  the  world. 


130 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


All  the  water  that  flows  in  the  rivers  of  this  great  ter- 
ritory, with  the  exception  of  a  small  section  in  the  South, 
finds  its  way  into  the  Mississippi  and  then  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  The  entire  region  drained  by  all  these 
streams  is  therefore  called  the  Mississippi  Basin. 

We  know  that  every  river,  from  the  point  where  it 
rises  in  highlands  or  mountains  to  the  point  where  it 


Great  Falls  of  the  Missouri  River 

flows  into  another  body  of  water,  is  constantly  produc- 
ing interesting  and  important  changes.  Hills  and  moun- 
tains are  worn  down,  valleys  are  filled  with  rock  waste, 
or  soil,  and  portions  of  the  land  of  the  continent  are 
carried  into  the  ocean  by  the  force  of  running  water. 

The  faster  water  runs,  the  greater  power  it  has  to 
wear  away  the  soil,  carry  off  waste  particles,  and  move 
small  rocks  along.  Near  the  sources  of  most  rivers,  in 
the  hills  or  mountains,  there  are  many  cataracts  and 
falls,  and  often  some  farther  along  in  their  middle 
courses.     The  water,  flowing  swiftly  over  these,  wears 


MISSISSIPPI   RIVER   SYSTEM 


131 


the  rocks  into  particles  and  carries  the  waste  along, 
together  with  soil  that  is  carried  into  the  rivers  by  hun- 
dreds of  brooks  during  heavy  rains. 

Farther  down  in  a  river,  where  it  flows  more  slowly, 
much  of  this  matter  settles  and  forms  a  mass  of  mud  in 
the  bed  or  along  the  banks.     In  some  parts  of  such  a 


A  Flood  Plain 

river  the  water  moves  faster  than  in  other  parts.  Here 
the  moving  water  carries  away  the  mud  and  so  wears 
out  a  deeper  channel.  In  a  very  long  time  the  bed  in 
the  shallow  parts  may  be  built  up  so  high  and  the 
channel  worn  so  deep  that  there  will  be  room  enough 
in  the  channel  for  all  the  water  to  flow. 

By  this  slow  process,  continued  through  thousands  of 
years,  a  tract  of  level  land  is  formed  in  a  river  valley, 
with  the  river  flowing  through  it.  Such  land  is  called 
an  alluvial  plain  or  the  flood  plain  of  the  river. 

The  flood  plains  of  some  of  the  rivers  of  the  Missis- 
sippi System,  such  as  that  of  the  Ohio  River,  are  still 
so  low  that  there   is   danger  of  overflow   in   times  of 


132 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


heavy  rain.  Buildings  are  sometimes  destroyed  and 
people  are  drowned  when  there  is  an  unusual  rise  in 
such  a  river. 

When  a  river  overflows  its  banks,  soil  settles  from  the 
water,  each  time  building  up  the  flood  plain  a  little 
higher.  The  greatest  amount  settles  when  the  water 
first  passes  over  the  banks,  hence  these  become  higher 
than  the  land  farther  away,  and  have  a  gradual  slope 
away  from  the   river.      The  elevated   banks   have   the 


Flood  on  the  Ohio  Rivei-  at  Lawrenceburg,  Ind. 

favorable  effect  of  preventing  the  river  from  overflowing 
as  much  as  it  otherwise  would.  Along  some  rivers  it 
is  necessary  to  make  the  banks  still  higher  by  con- 
structing levees  to  prevent  the  water  from  overflowing 
and  destroying  the  crops.  Wide  sections  of  the  flood 
plain  of  the  Mississippi  near  its  mouth  are  lower  than 
the  banks  of  the  river.  When  the  river  is  high,  great 
care  is  taken  to  prevent  it  from  breaking  through. 

A  river  usually  flows  more  slowly  as  it  approaches  its 
mouth,  and  since  in  slowly  running  water  only   very 


MISSISSIPPI   RIVER   SYSTEM  133 

small  particles  of  soil  can  be  carried  along,  the  soil  of 
flood  plains  near  the  mouths  of  rivers  is  usually  very 
fine  and  fertile.  When  the  Mississippi  reaches  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  it  still  carries  a  large  amount  of  very  fine 
soil,  and  this  has  built  up  a  large  and  fertile  delta. 

Rivers  do  not  usually  flow  in  straight  lines,  but  make 
curves  to  the  right  and  left  across  their  flood  plains. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  that  after  a  slight  curve  has  been 
started  in  a  river  it  will  continually  increase.  The 
running  water  strikes  with  greater  force  against  the 
bank  on  the  outside  of  a  curve  than  against  that  on 
the  inside,  and  digs  farther  into  the  land.  Sometimes 
long  loops  with  narrow  necks,  called  ox-bow  loops,  are 
formed  in  this  way.  After  a  time  the  river  may  wear 
its  way  entirely  across  the  neck  of  a  loop  and  then  flow 
in  a  more  direct  course,  instead  of  flowing  through  the 
loop.  There  are  so  many  bends  and  loops  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  that  the  distance  by  a  river  boat  from 
New  Orleans  to  St.  Louis  is  much  greater  than  it  is  in  a 
direct  line. 

The  best  farming  land  of  a  country  is  usually  on  the 
flood  plains  of  its  rivers.  The  rich  soil  of  these  "  bot- 
tom lands,"  or  "  intervals,"  composed  of  river  mud,  pro- 
duces very  large  crops.  In  some  countries  the  greater 
part  of  the  population  is  to  be  found  on  such  flood  plains. 
Below  its  union  with  the  Ohio  River  the  Mississippi  flows 
through  a  flood  plain  from  fifty  to  seventy  miles  wide. 

1.  In  what  season  of  the  year  do  rivers  carry  away  the  greatest 
amount  of  soil? 

2.  There  are  often  sand  banks,  or  bars,  in  rivers  at  points  where  they 
begin  to  flow  more  slowly.     Why  is  this  ? 


134  THE   UNITED   STATES 

3.  Why  do  not  ships  moving  up  a  river  go  in  a  straight  line  along 
the  middle  of  the  river  ? 

4.  Why  is  the  land  in  river  valleys  generally  level? 

5.  Why  does  the  land  of  flood  plains  contain  no  stones? 

6.  Why  are  several  cities  along  the  Mississippi  built  upon  high  bluffs  ? 

7.  Why  does  a  large  part  of  the  population  of  some  countries  live  upon 
the  flood  plains  ? 

8.  Make  a  map  showing  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  rivers  flowing 
into  it,  which  are  called  its  tributaries. 


27.    Wheat  and  Corn 

On  the  Great  Central  Plain  of  the  United  States  are 
the  most  extensive  grain  fields  and  corn  fields  in  the 
world.  The  land  is  generally  free  from  rocks  and  trees. 
The  fields  are  so  broad  and  level  that  the  largest  and 
most  improved  machines  can  be  used  in  cultivating  and 
harvesting  the  crops.  The  soil  is  very  fertile  and  deep. 
In  other  places,  as  in  portions  of  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country,  the  soil  furnishes  so  little  plant  food  that  ex- 
pensive fertilizers  must  be  added  to  make  the  crops  grow, 
but  in  this  section  there  is  generally  so  much  plant  food 
in  the  soil  that  abundant  crops  will  grow  year  after 
year,  if  there  is  rain  enough  to  prevent  drought.      ^ 

Winds  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, passing  freely  up  the  Mississippi  Valley,  usually 
carry  moisture  enough  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  crops. 
These  winds  are  frequently  a  disadvantage.  Since  they 
are  not  checked  by  mountain  ranges,  they  sometimes 
blow  with  great  violence  and  destroy  crops  and  build- 
ings. In  winter  severe  snowstorms  with  high  winds 
often  sweep  over  the  northern  part  of  the  country. 
Such  storms  are  called  blizzards. 

The  use  of  machines  and  the  great  fertility  of  the  soil 


WHEAT   AND   CORN 


135 


make  it  possible  to  raise  here  immense  quantities  of  the 
great  food  crops  of  the  world.  Some  of  the  cities  of 
Europe  depend  largely  upon  this  great  American  farm 
region  for  their  supply  of  food.  If  all  the  grain  fields 
of  the  United  States  were  combined,  they  would  cover 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.Y. 

A  Harvester  drawn  by  Thirty-three  Horses 

a  territory  as  large  as  five  or  six  of  the  smaller  countries 
of  Europe. 

Wheat  is  raised  to  a  large  extent  in  all  of  the  Central 
States.  A  section  especially  noted  for  the  wheat  crop 
is  called  the  Red  River  Plains  because  it  lies  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Red  River  of  the  North.  These  plains  are 
nearly  as  level  as  the  ocean.  When  the  Ice  Sheet  moved 
down  across  the  country,  it  extended  across  the  valley 


136 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


of  the  Red  River  of  the  North.  It  prevented  the  water 
from  flowing  north  and  caused  it  to  form  a  great  lake  in 
front  of  the  ice.  As  the  ice  melted,  the  soil  that  it  con- 
tained was  spread  evenly  over  the  bottom  of  this  lake. 
When  the  ice  had  all  melted,  the  river  flowed  north 
again  and  the  bed  of  the  lake  became  dry  and  level  land. 


This  Machine  plows  and  sows  at  the  Same  Time 

Over  this  region  in  summer  there  are  fields  of  waving 
wheat  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see.  The  most  extensive  of 
these  level  wheat  farms  are  in  Minnesota,  North  Dakota, 
and  South  Dakota.  There  are  farms  in  that  region  each 
containing  thousands  of  acres  of  wheat  and  employing 
hundreds  of  men. 

Our  entire  wheat  crop  usually  amounts  to  more  than 
seven  hundred  million  bushels  a  year.  This  immense 
quantity  furnishes  business  for  many  railroads,  steam- 
boats, and  canal  boats  that  carry  wheat  to  flour  mills 
and  take  both  wheat  and  flour  to  the  cities  of  the  East 
and  to  seaports  from  which  they  are  shipped  abroad. 


WHEAT   AND   CORN 


137 


The  United  States  is  by  no  means  the  only  country 
in  which  a  great  amount  of  wheat  is  raised.  Wheat 
is  becoming  the  most  common  and  popular  article  of 
food  among  the  civilized  peoples  of  the  world.  It  is  an 
important  crop  in  so  many  regions  of  the  earth  that  at 
all  times  of  the  year  there  are  farmers  in  some  countries 


Grain  Elevators 


engaged  in  the  wheat  harvest.  The  countries  of  Europe 
raise  about  one  half  of  the  world's  snpply  of  wheat,  but 
in  addition  to  this  amount  they  buy  nearly  all  that  other 
countries  have  to  sell. 

We  also  raise  a  vast  amount  of  corn  in  the  Central 
States.  Since  we  use  but  little  corn  for  food  and  see 
comparatively  little  carried  on  cars  and  boats,  it  does 
not  attract  onr  attention  as  much  as  wheat.  To  many 
it  will  be  a  surprising  statement  that  we  usually  raise 
more  than  three  times  as  many  bushels  of  corn  as  of 


138  THE   UNITED   STATES 

wheat.  Our  corn  crop  usually  amounts  to  over  two  and 
one  half  billion  bushels.  Some  of  the  corn  is  shipped 
away  to  market,  but  a  large  part  of  it  is  fed  to  live 
stock  upon  the  farms. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  corn  is  used  in  manufactur- 
ing certain  products.  We  all  know  what  corn  starch  is. 
More  than  one  half  of  every  grain  of  corn  is  composed 
of  starch  of  fine  quality,  and  there  are  many  factories 
in  the  country  which  manufacture  it.  By  treatment 
with  certain  acids  the  starchy  part  of  corn  is  converted 
into  a  sirup  called  glucose. 

From  the  yellow  germs  of  the  grains  corn  oil  is 
pressed.  This  is  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for 
olive  oil  and  for  making  paint  and  soap. 

By  a  process  called  vulcanizing,  corn  oil  is  changed  to 
corn  rubber.  It  is  cheaper  than  gum  rubber  and  is  mixed 
with  the  gum  for  making  rubbers  and  rubber  boots. 

Corn  stalks,  which  farmers  formerly  left  in  the  fields 
to  decay,  are  very  useful.  It  has  been  found  that  good 
paper  may  be  made  from  the  outer  portions.  Even  the 
white  pith  in  the  interior  of  the  stalks  is  put  to  interest- 
ing uses.  It  is  similar  to  cotton  in  composition,  and  is 
used  in  place  of  cotton  in  the  manufacture  of  celluloid. 
Like  cotton,  when  soaked  in  acids  it  becomes  gun  cotton, 
a  very  powerful  explosive. 

1.  Why  are  the  farms  larger  in  the  central  part  of  the  country  than 
in  the  eastern  part? 

2.  Find  about  how  much  the  average  wheat  crop  of  the  country 
would  be  worth  at  ninety  cents  a  bushel. 

3.  At  Peoria,  Illinois,  a  large  amount  of  corn  is  manufactured  into 
various  products.     Locate  Peoria. 

4.  Minneapolis  has  very  large  flour  mills.     Where  is  it  situated? 


LIVE   STOCK 


139 


5.  How  are  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  rivers  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country  an  advantage  to  the  farmers  farther  west? 

6.  Why  have  such  cities  as  New  York  and  Baltimore  become  larger 
on  account  of  the  wheat  fields  of  the  West  ? 


28.    Live  Stock 

Cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  so  many  of  which  are  raised 
to  supply  people  with  food  and  clothing,  are  found  in 
greatest  numbers  in  places  where  their  food  is  most 
easily  obtained.  It  requires  a  large  amount  of  land  to 
produce  grass  and  grain  for  these  animals. 

Those  of  us  who  live  in  cities  and  towns  may  never 
have  seen  a  large  herd  of  cattle  because  the  land  near 
such  localities  is  too  valuable  to  be  devoted  to  pasturage. 
On  a  western  ranch  a  single  owner  may  have  as  many 
as  twenty  thousand  cattle. 

On  account  of  cheap  land  for  pasturage,  the  ease  of 
raising  corn  and  other  grains  for  fattening  animals,  and 
the  climate  which  is  healthful  for  live  stock,  the  United 
States  raises  more  cattle  than  any  other  country  of  the 
world.  The  number  of  cattle  in  the  country  is  nearly 
as  great  as  that  of  all  the  men,  women,  and  children 
who  live  in  it. 


140 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


The  largest  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  pastured  on 
ranches  on  the  Great  Plains.  The  greater  part  of  the 
land  west  of  the  100th  meridian  of  longitude  is  too  dry 
for  profitable  farming,  but  moist  enough  during  a 
portion  of  the  year  to  produce  sufficient  grass  for  pastur- 
age. Bunch  grass  is  the  most  common  kind  that  grows 
on  these  plains.  When  this  becomes  ripe  and  dry,  it 
does  not  spoil  as  ordinary  hay  spoils  when  exposed  to 

the  weather, 
but  is  always 
good  food  for 
the  animals. 
On  portions 
of  the  plains 
this  grass  is 
very  scanty, 
and      several 


CATTLE 

IN  THE 

UNITED  STATES 


acres  are  nec- 
essary to  sup- 
port a  single 
animal.     On  this  account  a  large  herd  must  roam  over  an 
immense  territory  in  order  to  find  sufficient  food. 

Before  these  cattle  are  ready  for  the  market  they 
need  to  be  fattened  with  corn.  Corn  is  sometimes  shipped 
West  to  the  ranches  from  the  corn  region,  but  more  fre- 
quently the  cattle  are  shipped  to  the  corn-producing  states. 
Many  a  farmer,  instead  of  selling  his  crop  of  corn,  finds 
it  more  profitable  to  purchase  a  carload  or  two  of  steers 
from  the  ranches,  feed  them  corn,  and  sell  them  at  a 
much  higher  price  after  they  are  fattened. 

On  most  of  the  corn-producing  farms  of  these  Central 


LIVE   STOCK 


141 


States  live  stock  is  raised  as  the  best  means  of  market- 
ing the  crop.  In  addition  to  other  branches  of  farming 
more  live  stock  is  raised  here  than  on  the  same  amount 
of  territory  in  the  region  of  the  Great  Plains.  When 
the  animals  have  been  fattened,  it  costs  much  less  to 
ship  them  to  market  than  it  would  to  send  the  amount 
of  food  that  they  have  eaten. 


rm 


m-f 


Loading  a  Cattle  Train 

We  also  raise  more  hogs  than  any  other  country. 
About  one  third  of  our  immense  crop  of  corn  is  fed  to 
swine  for  producing  pork.  American  pork  is  a  common 
article  of  food  in  many  foreign  countries. 

Some  cattle  are  shipped  alive  across  the  Atlantic  to 
Europe,  in  steamships  specially  fitted  for  this  purpose, 
but  most  of  the  fat  cattle,  swine,  and  sheep  are  sent  to 
meat-packing  centers,  the  largest  of  which  are  Chicago, 
Kansas  City,  in  Kansas,  Omaha,  and  St.  Louis. 


142 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


Chicago  is  the  greatest  stock  market  and  meat-pack- 
ing center  in  the  world.     The  Union  Stock  Yards,  where 

animals  are  un- 
loaded from  cars 
and  kept  in  yards 
before  they  are 
slaughtered,  are  of 
astonishing  size. 
They  contain 
twenty  miles  of 
streets.  It  is  said 
that  there  are  one 
hundred  and  fifty 
miles  of  railroad 
track  in  and  about 
the  yards  for  the 
accommodation  of 
cattle  trains.  The 
slaughter  houses 
and  meat-packing 
houses  are 
immense  establishments  in  which  thousands  of  people 
are  employed.  The  fresh  meat  when  prepared  for  ship- 
ment is  sent  in  refrigerator  cars  to  the  various  cities  of 
the  country.  Much  of  the  meat  is  preserved  by  salting, 
smoking,  and  canning.  All  parts  of  the  animals  are 
saved  for  some  useful  purposes.  The  blood  is  used  as  a 
fertilizer,  the  hides  are  tanned  for  leather,  the  hair  is 
used  for  making  cheap  cloth,  some  of  the  bones  are 
manufactured  into  knife  handles,  combs,  and  buttons, 
and  glue  is  made  from  the  marrow  of  the  bones. 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood- 

Union  Stock  Yards 


LIVE   STOCK 


143 


Dairying  also  is  a  large  industry  in  the  Central  States. 
On  many  of  the  farms  large  herds  of  milch  cows  are 
kept  for  this  purpose.  The  numerous  towns  and  cities 
are  supplied  with  fresh  milk,  and  train  loads  of  butter 
and  cheese  are  shipped  away  week  after  week  to  more 
distant  markets. 


.*■  isms 


Horses  in  a  Pasture 

The  "  blue-grass  "  region  in  the  northern  part  of  Ken- 
tucky is  one  of  the  richest  pasture  regions  in  the  world. 
Many  fine  trotting  horses  and  saddle  horses  are  raised 
there. 

1.  Name  in  order  the  states,  from  North  Dakota  to  Texas,  across  which 
the  Great  Plains  extend. 

2.  Why  is  there  not  much  dairying  on  the  Great  Plains  ? 

3.  Name  cities  through  which  a  train  would  probably  pass  in  going 
from  Chicago  to  Boston. 

4.  About  how  long  would  it  take  for  a  train  to  go  from  Chicago  to 
New  York  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  an  hour? 

5.  Name  cities  through  which  a  train  would  be  likely  to  pass  in  going 
from  St.  Louis  to  Philadelphia. 

6.  More  mules  are  raised  in  Missouri  than  in  any  other  state.  Why 
are  they  specially  useful  in  that  region  ? 

7.  St.  Joseph  has  a  meat-packing  establishment.  In  what  part  of 
Missouri  is  it? 

8.  Make  a  map  of  the  Central  Section,  showing  the  location  of  the 
meat-packing  centers. 


144 


THE    UNITED   STATES 


29.    Various  Products 

Other  products  besides  wheat  and  corn  are  raised  in 
the  central  farming  region.  The  most  important  of  these 
are  oats,  barley,  flax,  hay,  potatoes,  tobacco,  and  fruits. 
We  grow,  in  this  country,  nearly  a  billion  bushels  of 
oats  every  year.  The  number  of  bushels  is  sometimes 
greater  than  that  of  the  wheat  crop.  Why  then  do  we 
make  so  much  more  account   of    wheat  than  of   our 

oats  ?  One  an- 
swer is  that  the 
figures  are  decep- 
tive, because  a 
bushel  of  oats 
weighs  only  about 
one  half  as  much 
as  a  bushel  of 
wheat.  Another 
answer  is  that 
oats  are  chiefly 
used  as  feed  for 
horses  and  do  not 
attract  so  much 
attention  as  wheat  and  corn,  which  are  used  for  human 
food  or  to  fatten  animals  for  producing  human  food. 
Oats  are  used  to  some  extent  for  breakfast  foods,  but 
only  a  small  amount  is  required  for  this  purpose. 

More  barley  is  raised  in  some  foreign  countries  than 
in  our  own.  It  is  a  kind  of  grain  that  will  grow  and 
mature  in  a  very  short  time.  It  will  therefore  thrive  in 
the  far  North,  where  summers  are  short.     It  is  raised  as 


Loading  Oats 


VARIOUS   PRODUCTS 


145 


far  north  as  Alaska  and  Iceland.  The  principal  use  of 
barley  in  the  United  States  is  for  producing  malt,  which 
is  necessary  in  the  process  of  making  beer. 

Most  of  the  flax  of  the  United  States  is  raised  in  the 
Central  States  west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  In  some 
countries  of  Europe  flax  is  raised  chiefly  for  the  purpose 
of  manufacturing  linen,  but  until  recently  farmers  in  the 


Pulling  Flax,  Minnesota 

United  States  have  raised  the  crop  primarily  to  obtain 
the  seed,  which  is  called  linseed.  Only  a  small  amount 
of  linen  is  produced  in  this  country,  and  most  of  that  is 
manufactured  into  thread  and  coarse  toweling. 

Linseed  oil,  which  is  pressed  from  linseed,  is  used  for 
making  paint  and  for  manufacturing  oilcloth  and  lino- 
leum. The  remaining  part  is  used  as  feed  for  farm 
animals. 

Some  fruit  of  various  kinds  is  raised  upon  the  farms 
here,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  but  in  certain 
places,  where  the  soil  and  climate  are  very  favorable, 
fruit  raising  is  a  leading  occupation.  Some  varieties  of 
fruit  thrive  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Great  Lakes  where 


146  THE   UNITED   STATES 

the  effect  of  these  vast  bodies  of  water  is  to  modify  the 
cold  of  winter  and  the  heat  of  summer.  There  are 
many  large  vineyards  in  the  Chautauqua  grape  belt, 
which  extends  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  through 
Pennsylvania,  into  Ohio.  Michigan,  which  is  in  the 
midst  of  the  lakes,  produces  large  crops  of  apples  and 
peaches,  and  an  abundance  of  other  fruits. 

Much  tobacco  is  raised  in  parts  of  Missouri  and 
southern  Wisconsin,  where  conditions  of  soil  and  climate 
are  favorable. 

Most  of  the  hemp  that  this  country  produces  is  raised 
in  the  blue-grass  region  of  Kentucky.  It  grows  like  a 
crop  of  tall  grain.  The  seed  is  used  as  food  for  caged 
birds.  Hemp  fibers  are  obtained  from  the  stalks,  as 
fibers  of  linen  are  obtained  from  flax,  by  soaking  and 
softening  the  stalks  until  the  fibers  can  be  separated. 

The  great  prairie  region  is  not  so  destitute  of  trees 
as  it  once  was.  Most  of  the  settlers  have  planted  trees 
about  their  buildings  for  shade  and  for  protection 
against  violent  winds,  and  large  numbers  of  small  tracts 
have  been  planted  with  forest  trees  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  timber. 

In  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes  there  are  extensive 
forests  of  timber.  Indeed  this  region  has  been  regarded 
as  the  most  important  lumber  region  in  the  world.  The 
forests  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and  Michigan  supply 
the  greater  part  of  the  white  pine  lumber  of  the  country. 
This  is  in  great  demand  for  building  purposes,  and  the 
supply  is  rapidly  diminishing.  Waterfalls  in  these 
states,  caused  by  the  Ice  Sheet,  furnish  power  for  manu- 
facturing the  lumber,  and  it  is  easily  shipped  away  on 


VARIOUS   PRODUCTS 


141 


the  lakes  and  rivers,  as  well  as  by  railroads.  Such  cities 
as  Minneapolis,  Duluth,  and  Superior  are  great  lumber 
centers. 


In  the  Lumber  District,  Minneapolis 


1.  Name  the  states  of  this  section  that  are  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River. 

2.  Why  will  not  many  kinds  of  fruit  trees  thrive  in  northern  Minnesota  ? 

3.  Milwaukee  is  noted  for  its  large  breweries.     About  how  far  is  it 
from  Chicago? 

4.  There  are  large  lumber  mills  at  La  Crosse  and  Oshkosh.    In  what 
State  are  they  ? 

5.  Saginaw  and  Bay  City  are  also  lumber  centers.     Where  are  they 
situated  ? 

6.  Grand  Rapids  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  furniture.     In  what 
part  of  Michigan  is  it? 

7.  In  what  way  would  lumber  probably  be  shipped  from  Duluth  to 
Chicago? 

8.  In  what  way  would  it  probably  be  shipped  from  St.  Louis? 

9.  Make  a  map  of  this  section,  showing  the  lumber  regions  and  the 
regions  where  fruits  are  extensively  raised. 


148  THE   UNITED   STATES 

30.    Coal  and  Iron 

Anthracite  coal,  or  hard  coal,  is  found  in  a  compara- 
tively small  region  in  northeastern  Pennsylvania.  The 
coal  of  the  Central  States  is  bituminous,  or  soft  coal. 
One  very  large  coal  field  extends  across  western  Penn- 
sylvania, Ohio,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama. 
Another  covers  portions  of  Indiana  and  Illinois.  There 
are  other  fields  in  the  states  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River.     (See  map  on  page  56.) 

Since  wood  for  fuel  is  so  scarce  in  this  part  of  the 
country,  it  is  fortunate  that  a  plentiful  supply  of  coal  is 
near  at  hand.  Cheap  coal  also  makes  manufacturing 
possible  in  a  section  where  there  is  little  water  power. 

Coke,  which  is  nsed  for  smelting  iron  ore,  is  prepared 
from  bituminous  coal,  and  the  abundance  of  this  is  of  great 
advantage  in  producing  iron  and  in  manufacturing 
articles  from  iron  and  steel. 

Formerly  most  of  the  iron  ore  that  was  used  in  this 
country  was  taken  from  the  Pennsylvania  mines,  but  in 
recent  years  it  has  been  obtained  in  large  quantities  in 
the  vicinity  of  Lake  Superior,  in  the  states  of  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota. 

Rich  beds  of  ore  were  discovered  in  several  small 
-ranges  of  hills  or  mountains  south  and  west  of  the  lake. 
These  mines  are  of  great  value,  not  only  because  they 
contain  vast  quantities  of  iron  ore,  but  especially  because 
the  ore  can  be  obtained  and  smelted  at  small  expense. 
Iron  ore  is  very  common  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
It  is  to  be  found  in  many  of  our  states.  But  it  is 
usually  of  little  value  because  it  is  in  locations  where  it 


COAL   AND   IRON 


149 


cannot  be  easily  obtained  or  where  it  would  be  expensive 
to  procure  coal  or  coke  for  smelting  it. 

The  ore  in  the  Lake  Superior  district  looks  like  red 
earth.  A  part  of  it  is  so  soft  that  it  can  be  scooped  up 
with  steam  shovels  and  loaded  directly  on  cars.  More 
frequently  it  is  loosened  by  blasting.  In  some  places  it 
is  taken  up  through  shafts  from  below  the  surface. 

The  mines  are  not  very  far  distant  from  the  lake  and 
the  ore  is  easily  drawn  to  the  shore  upon  short  railways. 
Some  of  these 
railways  slope 
slightly  from  the 
mines  to  the  lake, 
and  loaded  cars 
will  run  down  to 
the  shore  by  their 
own  weight. 

The  cars  are 
run  out  upon 
great  piers  built 
high  above  the 
lake,  and  the 
loads  are  dumped 
into  bins  under- 
neath. Boats  then  pass  under  the  bins  and  are  quickly 
loaded.  These  boats  carry  the  ore  to  cities  on  the  south- 
ern shores  of  the  lakes,  where  it  is  unloaded  with  great 
steam  shovels.  It  is  then  either  smelted  with  coke 
brought  from  the  coal  fields  which  are  not  far  away,  or 
taken  by  canals  or  railroads  to  Pittsburg  or  to  other 
points  in  the  coal  regions. 


In  an  Iron  Ore  Mine,  Mesabi  Range,  Minn. 


150 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


The  great  demand  for  iron  and  steel  and  the  ease  with 
which  ore  can  be  obtained  from  the  Lake  Superior  dis- 
trict has  rendered  this  an  enormous  business.     One  great 

corporation  has 
over  one  hundred 
freight  boats  en- 
gaged in  carrying 
ore. 

On  account  of 
cheap  coal  and 
cheap  iron  ore  we 
produce  more  iron 
and  steel  than  any 
other  country,  and 
have  become  the 
greatest  manufac- 
turing people 
the  world. 


Loading  a  Ship  with  Iron  Ore 


in 


1.  Name  lake  ports  that  are  near  the  iron  mines. 

2.  The  ore  at  Ishpeming  is  very  soft.     Where  is  Ishpeming? 

3.  Name  several  cities  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  lakes  to  which 
ore  may  be  shipped. 

4.  What  city  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie  is  nearest  Pittsburg? 

5.  How  far  is  it  from  Pittsburg  to  Cleveland  ? 

6.  How  would  a  vessel  from  Superior  reach  Chicago? 

7.  About  how  long  is  the  voyage  from  Superior  to  Chicago? 

8.  How  would  a  vessel  from  Duluth  reach  Buffalo  ? 

9.  Find  about  how  long  the  voyage  is  from  Duluth  to  Buffalo. 

10.  Why  is  not  iron  ore  sent  to  the  coal  fields  by  railroads? 

11.  At  Buffalo  heavy  machinery  and  many  car  wheels  are  made.     Why 
is  this  a  favorable  place  for  manufacturing  heavy  articles  of  iron? 

12.  Make  a  map  showing  the  coal  fields  and  the  fields  of  iron  ore  in  the 
Central  Section. 


OTHER   MINERALS 


151 


31.    Other  Minerals 

More  than  one  half  of  all  the  copper  of  the  world  is 
obtained  in  the  United  States.     The  value  of  our  copper 
is  now  greater   than 
that  of  all  the   gold 
that  is  brought  from 
our  gold  mines. 

The  use  of  copper 
has  increased  rapidly 
since  the  invention  of 
electric  lights,  tele- 
phones, and  electric 
railroads.  Copper  is 
a  good  conductor  of 
electricity.  This 
means  that  a  current 
of  electricity  will  pass 
along  copper  very 
easily. 

Many  of  the  streets, 
shops,  and  houses  of 
nearly  every  city  or 
large     town    in    the 

country  are  now  lighted  by  electricity.  The  electric 
current  is  produced  at  a  central  power  house  and  goes 
out  along  copper  wires,  which  extend  through  the 
streets  for  many  miles. 

Cars  on  electric  railways  are  driven  by  the  force  of 
electric  currents  passing  along  large  copper  wires. 

We  see  telephone  wires  not  only  on  city  streets,  but 


Electric  Power  House 


152 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


also  along  many  country  roads.  The  telephone  has  be- 
come a  great  convenience  in  farm  homes.  It  has  ren- 
dered country  life  less  lonely.  Over  one  hundred  and 
fifty  million  pounds  of  copper  a  year  have  recently  been 
used  in  extending  telephone  systems. 


A  Copper  Mining  Town 
The  pipe  leading  up  the  hill  carries  away  sulphur  fumes  from  the  smelter 

Brass  contains  much  copper.  It  is  made  by  melting 
copper  and  zinc  together.  Bronze  is  composed  of  copper 
and  tin. 

We  not  only  produce  copper  enough  to  supply  our 
own  wants,  but  also  send  a  large  quantity  to  Europe  and 
other  parts  of  the  world. 

The  greater  part  of  our  copper  is  obtained  in  the 
mountainous  states  of  the  West,  but  there  are  very  rich 
mines  in  the  northern  part  of  Michigan  near  the  south- 


OTHER   MINERALS 


153 


ern  shore  of  Lake  Superior.  Indians  found  beds  of  cop- 
per upon  the  surface  when  the  country  was  a  wilderness, 
and  afterward  deep  mines  were  opened. 

The  rock  containing  copper  ore  is  broken  up  and 
brought  to  the  surface,  where  it  is  crushed  to  powder 
under  powerful  ham- 
mers in  stamp  mills. 
Streams  of  water 
then  wash  away  the 
lighter  particles  of 
rock  and  leave  the 
heavier  particles  of 
copper  ore.  After 
this  the  pure  copper 
is  separated  by  smelt- 
ing. 

So  many  people 
are  employed  in  this 
work  that  several 
large  towns  have 
sprung  up  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  mines. 

The  largest  mine 
in  this  region  is  called 
the  Calumet  and 
Hecla.  It  is  one  of  the  richest  and  most  wonder- 
ful mines  in  the  world.  It  has  produced  in  a  single 
year  over  one  hundred  million  pounds  of  copper.  It  is 
the  deepest  mine  in  the  world.  Copper  ore  is  found 
in  veins  several  feet  thick,  with  layers  of  rock  between 
them.     Shafts  are  sunk  down  through  veins  of  ore  and 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co. 

Miners  coming  up  from  a  Calumet  and  Hecla 
Shaft 


154  THE   UNITED   STATES 

from  these  shafts  tunnels  are  extended  through  the  veins 
in  all  directions.  Some  of  the  shafts  reach  down  more 
than  four  thousand  feet  below  the  bottom  of  Lake 
Superior. 

In  this  mine  there  are  hundreds  of  miles  of  tun- 
nels, similar  to  the  streets  of  a  town.  Through  these 
tunnels  trains  of  cars  are  drawn  by  electric  locomotives. 
There  are  real  villages  of  people  under  the  ground  with 
electric  lights  on  the  streets,  with  police  officers  and  a 
fire  department.  From  the  bottom  of  the  mine  the 
people  can  talk  by  the  telephone  with  their  friends  in 
Chicago  or  in  other  cities. 

If  we  should  go  to  the  bottom  of  such  a  mine,  we 
might  find  it  uncomfortably  warm,  and  this  would  re- 
mind us  of  the  truth  of  what  we  have  already  learned, 
that  the  earth  in  its  interior  is  still  very  hot.  The 
miners  are  kept  comfortable  by  draughts  of  air  from 
the  surface. 

Lead  and  zinc  are  obtained  in  the  Central  States. 
Some  is  found  in  Wisconsin,  Kansas,  and  Arkansas, 
but  more  is  obtained  in  Missouri.  These  two  metals 
are  found  in  small  pockets  embedded  in  limestone. 
Lead  is  a  very  soft  metal.  It  is  used  for  roofing  and 
for  making  pipes.  Zinc  is  a  harder  metal.  It  is  used 
in  making  brass  and  galvanized  iron  and  for  various 
other  purposes. 

There  are  many  beds  of  clay  in  this  part  of  the  coun- 
try. Clay  is  good  for  making  bricks,  but  some  of  finest 
quality  is  made  into  pottery.  From  a  bed  of  clay  near 
Cincinnati  a  fine  grade  of  pottery  is  manufactured  in 
that  city.     The  clay  is  first  moistened  and  then  shaped 


OTHER   MINERALS 


155 


on  a  potter's  wheel  or  with  a  mold  into  the  form  of  the 
article  desired.  After  the  article  has  been  dried  and 
hardened  by  baking  in  a  kiln,  it  is  decorated  and  then 
covered  with  glaze. 

Tn  this  level  section  the  layers  of  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone are  mostly  buried  deep  beneath  the  soil,  but  in 
some  places  the  rivers  have  worn  their  beds  through 


Work-room  in  a  Pottery 

these  layers  and  there  the  stone  may  be  easily  obtained. 
Large  quantities  of  stone  are  obtained  from  quarries  in 
Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois. 

1.  Name  a  number  of  articles  that  are  made  of  copper. 

2.  Name  a  number  of  articles  that  are  made  of  brass. 

3.  Much  lead  and  zinc  are  mined  at  Joplin.     In  what  part  of  Mis- 
souri is  it  ? 

4.  The  town  of   Calumet  is  near  the  great  copper    mine.     In   wThat 
part  of  Michigan  is  it  ? 

5.  In  what  part  of  Ohio  is  Cincinnati  ? 

6.  Beds  of  clay  were  formed  by  the  Ice  Sheet.     Why  are  there  more 
of  them  in  the  Northern  States  than  in  the  Southern  States? 

7.  Why  is  no  granite  easily  found  in  the  Central  States? 


156 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


32.    Cities  near  the  Great  Lakes 

We  should  expect  to  find  most  of  the  large  cities  of 
this  central  part  of  the  country  either  on  the  shores  of 
the  Great  Lakes  or  along  the  large  rivers,  where  com- 
merce may  be  carried  on  both  by  boats  and  by  railroads. 


ght  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 


The  Heart  of  Chicago 

The  great  system  of  lakes  is  of  immense  value  to 
the  country.  Vast  quantities  of  grain,  lumber,  iron  ore, 
and  other  articles  are  shipped  across  the  lakes  to  the 
East,  and  manufactured  articles  are  shipped  to  the  West 
in  return.  About  one  hundred  million  tons  of  freight 
are  now  transported  on  the  Great  Lakes  in  a  year. 
The  cost  of  shipping  goods  on  lake  boats  is  much  less 
than  the  cost  by  railroads.  The  saving  amounts  to 
more  than  five  hundred  million  dollars  a  year.  Such 
a  great  amount  of  commerce  furnishes  business  for 
the  cities  where  the  goods  are  shipped  or  received. 


CITIES  NEAR  THE  GREAT  LAKES 


157 


The  largest  of  the  lake  cities  and  the  second  largest 
in  the  country  is  Chicago.  Nearly  all  the  railroads 
that  have  been  built  across  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  country  begin  or  end  at  Chicago.  It  has  a  central 
position  in  the  section  where  vast  quantities  of  grain 
and  live  stock  are  raised.  Lumber  and  iron  ore  are 
easily  brought  on 
the  lakes  from 
the  north.  Chi- 
cago has  become 
the  greatest  meat- 
packing center, 
the  greatest  grain 
market,  the  great- 
est lumber  market, 
and  the  greatest 
railroad  center  in 
the  world. 

Milwaukee  is 
the  largest  city  in 
Wisconsin.  It  is, 
like  Chicago,  a 
trading  center  for 
lumber,  grain,  and 

live  stock.  It  is  specially  noted  for  dealing  largely 
in  hides  and  leather.  Many  of  the  skins  of  animals 
slaughtered  in  the  meat-packing  cities  are  tanned  in  Mil- 
waukee with  the  bark  of  trees  from  Wisconsin  forests. 

The  word  Detroit  is  a  French  word  that  means  strait. 
Detroit  is  situated  at  a  place  where  all  vessels  going 
east  and  west  must  pass,  and  where  railway  trains  run- 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Wisconsin  St.,  Milwaukee 


158 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


ning  between  the  eastern  part  of  Canada  and  the  West 
are  ferried  across  the  narrow  strait.  It  is  a  convenient 
center  for  the  manufacture  and  shipment  of  goods. 

At  Cleveland,  which  is  situated  near  the  coal-fields, 
much  iron  ore  is  handled,  and  a  large  amount  of  machinery 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 


Lafayette  Square,  Buffalo 

and  hardware  is  manufactured.  Many  ships  are  built 
there  for  commerce  on  the  lakes.  A  great  amount  of 
petroleum,  which  is  brought  through  pipes  from  the 
petroleum  fields,  is  refined  at  Cleveland. 

Buffalo  has  a  good  harbor  on  Lake  Erie  and  many  rail- 
roads, and  has  become  a  great  commercial  center.  Im- 
mense quantities  of  grain  are  shipped  east  from  there 
through  the  Erie  canal  and  by  railroad.  Electric  light  and 
electric  power  in  Buffalo  are  obtained  from  Niagara  Falls. 


CITIES  NEAB  THE   GREAT   LAKES 


159 


1.   Name  the  capital  city  of  each  of  the  states  of  this  section  that 
border  on  the  Great  Lakes. 


Name  the  largest  city  in  each  of  these  states. 

Name  all  the  cities  that  are  situated  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie. 

About  how  far  is  Niagara  Falls  from  Buffalo  ? 

Explain  how  Buffalo  can  use  the  water  power  of  Niagara  Falls. 

Duluth  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific  coast. 


Why  is  that  city  at  a  favorable  point  for  such  a  terminus? 


Boat  in  Lock  on  St.  Mary's  Canal 

7.  Through  the  St.  Mary's  Canal  more  freight  is  carried  than 
through  any  other  canal  in  the  world.     Where  is  that  canal? 

8.  Name  different  kinds  of  freight  that  pass  through  the  St.  Mary's 
Canal. 

9.  What  will  be  the  effect  upon  Chicago  when  boats  are  able  to  pass 
from  that  city  through  a  canal  to  the  Mississippi  River  and  down  the 
Mississippi  Valley  to  New  Orleans  ? 

10.  Gary  grew  quickly  from  a  village  to  a  city  of  considerable  size 
because  immense  steel  mills  were  located  there.  About  how  far  is  it 
from  Chicago? 

11.  Make  a  map  of  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes,  showing  the  loca- 
tion of  all  the  cities  along  their  shores. 


160 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


33.    Cities  along  the  Rivers 

Of  the  cities  situated  along  the  rivers  of  the  central 
part  of  the  country,  St.  Louis  is  the  largest.  It  has 
a  favorable  location,  as  it  is  near  the  center  of  the 
great  Mississippi  Valley.  It  is  not  only  on  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  but  is  also  not  far  from  the  mouths  of  the 
Missouri  and  the  Ohio,  and  boats  can  easily  reach  it 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co. 

The  Great  Eads  Bridge  at  St.  Louis 

from  the  north,  south,  east,  or  west.  Two  immense 
railroad  bridges,  which  cross  the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis, 
have  tended  to  make  it  a  great  railroad  center.  It  not 
only  deals  largely  in  grain  and  live  stock,  but  since  it  is 
so  far  south,  it  also  has  a  large  trade  in  cotton  and 
tobacco.  Great  quantities  of  various  kinds  of  goods  are 
manufactured  in  St.  Louis. 

Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul  are  called  the  "  Twin  Cities 
of  the  Northwest."  They  are  only  a  few  miles  apart, 
and  from  their  rapid  growth  it  is  probable  that  within 
a  few  years  they  will  practically  form  one  city.     Near 


CITIES   ALONG   THE   RIVERS  161 

Minneapolis  are  the  great  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  and 
since  the  two  cities  are  near  the  head  of  navigation  of 
the  Mississippi,  they  have  the  double  advantage  of  com- 
merce by  the  river  and  power  from  the  waterfalls. 

The  growth  of  the  "Twin  Cities"  has  been  remark- 
able. Only  a  little  more  than  half  a  century  ago  the 
great  Northwest,  including  what  is  now  Minnesota, 
western  Wisconsin,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  and 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co. 

St.  Anthony's  Falls  and  the  Milling  District,  Minneapolis 

Montana,  was  a  wilderness  of  forests  and  prairies  in- 
habited by  roving  Indians.  Wheat  farms  upon  the 
prairies  and  lumber  from  the  forests  have  increased  busi- 
ness so  rapidly  that  these  business  centers  of  the  section 
have  quickly  grown  from  small  villages  to  great  cities. 

At  Minneapolis  there  are  great  sawmills  along  the 
banks  of  the  river.  Many  of  these  mills  are  now 
silent  because  some  of  the  forests  from  which  they  were 
supplied  with  logs  have  been  cut  away.  But  the  supply 
of  wheat  from  prairie  farms  is  never  failing.  The  city 
has  over  twenty  great  flour  mills,  some  of  which  are 
among    the    largest   flour  mills   in   the  world.     All  of 


162 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


these  mills  together  are  capable  of  manufacturing  fif- 
teen or  twenty  million  barrels  of  flour  in  a  year.  The 
manufacture  of  barrels  for  such  a  great  amount  of  flour 
is  of  itself  an  industry  of  much  importance. 

St.  Paul,  a  short  distance  farther  down  the  river,  has 
not  the  advantages  for  manufacturing  that  Minne- 
apolis  has,   but   it   is   the    trading  center  for   a   great 


A,  J 


I 


J  ,./~>*44*:. 


il.    * 


if-    ' 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co. 


Omaha 


farming  region.  From  that  city  the  products  of  the 
farms  are  sent  east  and  south,  and  such  articles  as 
farming  implements,  clothing,  and  furniture,  which  the 
farmers  need  in  return,  are  sent  to  the  smaller  towns. 

Kansas  City  and  Omaha  on  the  Missouri  River  are 
surrounded  by  a  fertile  farming  country  where  much 
grain  and  live  stock  are  raised.  They  are  naturally 
great  trading  and  distributing  centers  for  the  farmers. 
They  are  near  the  ranching  country  where  large  herds 
of  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised  and  have  great  advan- 
tages for  dealing   in  live  stock  and  packing  meats. 


CITIES   ALONG   THE   KIVERS 


163 


The  largest  city  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  River, 
below  Pittsburg,  is  Cincinnati.  It  is  an  important 
manufacturing  center.  Besides  fine  pottery  made  from 
clay  found  in  the  vicinity,  it  manufactures  much  ma- 
chinery and  clothing. 

In  such  a  rich  farming  region  as  this,  many  impor- 
tant towns  and  even  some  large  cities  spring  up  at  long 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co. 

Along  the  Levee,  Cincinnati 

distances  from  the  lakes  and  rivers.  Trading  centers 
are  necessary  for  handling  the  crops  of  the  farms,  and 
the  most  convenient  and  natural  locations  for  these 
are  at  points  where  railroads  cross  one  another.  Such 
railroad  centers  and  trading  centers  are  Columbus,  in 
Ohio,  and  Indianapolis,  the  capital  of  Indiana.  The 
latter  is  the  largest  city  of  the  United  States  not  situ- 
ated near  navigable  water. 

1.  The  largest  river  city  of  Indiana  is  Evansville.     It  manufactures 
much  flour.     In  what  part  of  the  state  is  it? 

2.  Sioux  City  is  a  live  stock  center.     Locate  it. 


164  THE   UNITED   STATES 

3.  Dead  wood  is  a  mining  center  in   the  region  of  the  Black  Hills. 
In  what  state  is  it? 

4.  Fargo  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  of  the  Red  River.     In  what 
state  is  it  ? 

5.  Kansas  City  is  the  name  of  each  of  two  adjoining  cities  situated 
in  different  states.     Name  the  two  states. 

6.  Louisville  is  the  greatest  tobacco  market.     On  what  river  is  it  ? 

7.  Name  the  capital  cities  of  all  the  states  of  this  section  that  do 
not  border  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

8.  Name  the  largest  city  in  each  of  these  states. 

9.  Make  a  drawing  of  the   Mississippi,  Missouri,  and   Ohio  rivers, 
and  locate  upon  them  the  most  important  cities. 

REVIEW 

1.  Describe  the  Great  Central  Plain. 

2.  Tell  about  the  buffaloes  that  once  lived  upon  the  Great  Plains. 

3.  What  mountains  are  there  on  the  Great  Central  Plain  ? 

4.  How  has  the  soil  in  the  southern  part  of  this  section  been  formed  ? 

5.  How  long  is  the  Mississippi  River  ? 

6.  In  what  part  of  the  course  of  a  river  are  many  falls  and  cataracts 
usually  found? 

7.  How  are  flood  plains  formed  ? 

8.  Why  are  levees  built  on  the  banks  of  some  rivers? 

9.  Why  is  the  soil  near  the  mouths  of  rivers  usually  very  fertile  ? 

10.  Why  do  we  raise  more  grain  and  corn  than  other  countries? 

11.  How  were  the  Red  River  Plains  formed? 

12.  Where  are  our  largest  wheat  farms? 

13.  How  large  is  our  crop  of  Indian  corn  ? 

14.  What  is  done  with  the  greater  part  of  this  corn? 

15.  State  several  other  uses  of  corn. 

16.  How  are  the  cattle  of  the  Great  Plains  fattened  for  market  ? 

17.  Why  do  not  the  farmers  sell  their  corn   instead  of  feeding  it  to 
live  stock  ? 

18.  Name  several  meat-packing  centers. 

19.  Describe  the  Chicago  stock  yards. 

20.  AVhat  becomes  of  our  large  crop  of  oats  ? 

21.  Where  will  barley  grow,  and  for  what  purposes  is  it  used  ? 

22.  What  is  the  chief  purpose  for  which  flax  has  been  raised  in  this 
country  ? 

23.  Tell  about  lumbering  in  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

24.  In  what  states  are  the  largest  coal-fields  of  the  Central  Section  ? 


REVIEW 


165 


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^^^m  ^E^BiNH'      ii-m.i ''  ^ 

; 

Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  C 


The  Campus,  Detroit 


25.  From  what  states  of  the  section  is  iron  ore  obtained? 

26.  Explain  the  methods  of  obtaining  iron  ore. 

27.  State  what  is  done  with  the  ore. 

28.  Why  do  we  produce  more  iron  and  steel  than  any  other  country  ? 

29.  How  much  copper  do  we  obtain  from  our  mines? 

30.  For  what  purposes  is  so  much  copper  used  ? 

31.  Tell  about  the  Lake  Superior  copper  mines. 

32.  How  is  copper  obtained  from  the  mines  ? 

33.  Where  are  lead  and  zinc  found  ? 

34.  State  purposes  for  which  lead  and  zinc  are  used. 

35.  Explain  how  the  Great  Lakes  are  of  much  advantage  to  commerce? 

36.  Describe  the  location  of  Chicago. 

37.  Explain  the  leading  industries  of  Chicago. 

38.  Tell  about  Milwaukee. 

39.  Why  has  Detroit  a  situation  favorable  for  commerce? 

40.  What  are  the  leading  industries  of  Cleveland? 

41.  Why  has  Buffalo  become  a  great  commercial  center? 

42.  Why  is  St.  Louis  favorably  situated? 

43.  Tell  about  the  lumber  business  and  flour  business  of  Minneapolis. 

44.  For  what  articles  is  St.  Paul  a  great  trading  center? 

45.  What  can  you  say  about  Kansas  City  and  Omaha? 

46.  Tell  something  about  Columbus  and  Indianapolis. 


166 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


THE   WESTERN   SECTION 
34.    Physical  Features  and  Climate 

The  western  part  of  the  United  States  is  a  region  of 
wonderful  scenery.  In  sharp  contrast  with  the  prairies 
and  plains  of  the  Central  Section,  it  is  crossed  by  moun- 
tain ranges  extending  north  into  Canada  and  south  into 

Mexico.  Most  of 
the  territory  be- 
tween these 
ranges  consists  of 
plateaus  which, 
although  low  in 
comparison  with 
the  height  of  the 
mountains,  are 
yet  a  mile  or  more 
above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  Some  of 
the  mountains  rise 
to  a  height  of  two 
or  three  miles 
above  sea  level. 

In  the  northern 
part  of  the  section 
the  elevated  region 
through  which 
the  Columbia  River  flows  is  called  the  Columbia  Plateau. 
In  the  southern  part  the  region  crossed  by  the  Colorado 
River  is  called  the  Colorado  Plateau.  In  the  central 
part,  between  these  plateaus,  there  is  a  lower  region 


Canon  of  Crooked  River 

Showing  how  the  river  has  cut  its  course  through  the 
Columbia  plateau 


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■       Great  Falls^r 

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V       .»  yt-Yuma  \     ^      /—-J- "^-^^    yTZJi   . »- T^  — 


WESTERN  STATES 

Capitals  of  States:  ® 
Other  Cities:  . 

Principal  Railroad  Lines 

0  50         100 


v     G 

L* 
h 


Z f. 

...^KlPaso'j 
■*£nv  TEX  Al 


200  300 


Scale  of  Miles 

THE   M   -N.   WORKS 


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LongitiKle       llu'West       from        Greenwich     110 


in 


168  THE    UNITED   STATES 

which  includes  portions  of  the  states  of  Utah  and 
Nevada.  Since  this  is  surrounded  by  lofty  mountains 
and  plateaus,  it  is  called  the  Great  Basin. 

In  these  mountainous  regions,  in  past  ages,  there 
were  many  volcanoes.  Some  of  the  highest  mountain 
peaks,  such  as  Mt.  Rainier,  Mt.  Hood,  and  Mt.  Shasta, 
are  the  remains  of  old  volcanoes.  There  are  thousands 
of  square  miles  of  land  in  parts  of  the  West  that  con- 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co. 

Mt.  Shasta,  California 


sist  of  beds  of  lava  that  once  flowed  from  volcanoes 
and  covered  the  country.  On  the  surface  this  volcanic 
rock  has  slowly  crumbled  into  soil,  and  some  of  the  rich- 
est farming  lands  are  upon  such  lava  beds.  By  digging 
through  layers  of  lava  rock  the  former  surface  of  the 
land  has  been  found  and  also  the  gravel  beds  of  streams 
that  flowed  over  the  country  before  it  was  buried  under 
volcanic  eruptions. 

The  scenery  of  the  great  West  is  not  more  wonderful 
and  varied  than  its  climate.  Over  the  greater  part  of 
the  section  the  climate  is  very  dry,  or  arid.     The  mois- 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES   AND   CLIMATE 


169 


ture  is  mostly  brought  by  westerly  winds  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  As  the  winds  pass  over  the  mountain 
ranges  near  the  coast,  considerable  rain  falls.  In  the 
western  part  of  the  state  of  Washington  there  is  a 
greater  rainfall  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  country, 


A  Forest  on  the  Plains  of  Southern  Arizona 

but  in  passing  over  the  mountains  the  air  becomes  so 
dry  that  it  affords  little  rain  for  the  plateaus  and  val- 
leys beyond. 

During  the  winter  months  there  are  usually  westerly 
winds  and  frequent  rains  along  the  whole  Pacific  coast, 
but  in  summer  these  winds  mostly  cease  in  the  state  of 
California.  This  causes  a  rainy  season  in  that  state  in 
winter  and  a  dry  season  in  summer. 

Over  all  this  large  region,  extending  east  from  a  strip 
of  country  near   the   coast  to  the  central  part   of  the 


170 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


country,  that  receives  its  moisture  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  there  is  a  general  lack  of 
moisture.  Only  among  the  mountains  and  on  high  pla- 
teaus in  northern  California,  and  in  the  western  parts 
of  Oregon  and  Washington,  is  the  rainfall  sufficient  to 
produce  timber  forests  or  for  farming  without  irrigation. 


Freighting  Borax  across  the  Desert 

This  is  the  great  desert  region  of  the  United  States. 
In  some  parts  of  it  the  little  rain  that  occasionally  falls 
furnishes  moisture  enough  to  support  some  varieties 
of  low-growing  shrubs,  such  as  sagebrush,  grease  wood, 
and  mesquite.  Many  varieties  of  the  cactus  plant  grow 
in  these  desert  regions.  A  tree  with  thin  leaves  would 
lose  moisture  so  fast  on  the  hot  desert  that  it  would 
soon  wither,  but  the  cactus  plant  retains  its  moisture  in 
its  thick,  fleshy  foliage  through  a  very  long  period  of 
dry  weather. 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES   AND   CLIMATE 


171 


In  portions  of  Nevada,  Utah,  and  Arizona  there  are 
regions  so  dry  that  no  living  plant  can  be  seen  upon 
them  for  many  miles.  In  some  parts  of  these  regions 
the  ground  is  covered  with  a  kind  of  salt,  or  alkali, 
which  remains  upon  the  surface  and  glistens  in  the  sun- 
light because  there  is  not  rain  enough  to  dissolve  it  and 
carry  it  into  the  soil. 

The  water  of  Great  Salt  Lake  contains  about  six 
times  as  much  salt  as  the  same  amount  of  sea  water. 


On  the  Shore  of  Great  Salt  Lake 

A  very  long  time  ago  this  lake  was  a  thousand  feet 
deeper  than  at  present,  and  it  had  an  outlet  to  the  sea 
by  way  of  the  Snake  River  and  the  Columbia  River. 
At  that  time  it  must  have  been  a  body  of  fresh  water. 
Most  water  that  we  call  fresh  contains  a  very  small 
amount  of  salt.  Ponds  and  lakes  that  have  streams 
flowing  into  them,  and  outlets  to  carry  away  the  over- 
flow, do  not  increase  in  saltness  because  the  salt  is  car- 
ried away  as  fast  as  it  goes  in.  In  a  lake  that  has  no 
outlet  the  salt  accumulates.  Fresh  water  passes  into 
the  air  by  evaporation,  but  the  salt  remains,  and  after 


172  THE   UNITED   STATES 

thousands  of  years  such  lakes  become  very  salt.  Since 
that  ancient  time  when  the  water  of  Great  Salt  Lake  had 
an  outlet,  the  climate  of  that  region  has  become  so  dry 
that  the  amount  of  water  flowing  into  the  lake  is  not 
so  great  as  that  which  evaporates,  hence  it  has  slowly 
settled  and  its  saltness  has  constantly  increased. 

Much  salt  is  obtained  from  this  lake.  Water  is 
drawn  from  it  into  shallow  basins,  or  ponds,  and  after 
it  evaporates  a  coating  of  white  salt  remains.  This  is 
broken  up  and  prepared  for  the  market. 

There  is  a  great  variation  in  temperature  in  different 
parts  of  this  Western  Section.  In  some  low  valleys  or 
deserts  the  thermometer  sometimes  reaches  110°  or  even 
120°  in  the  shade,  while  on  high  plateaus  and  among 
the  mountains  it  may  be  very  cool.  Along  the  western 
coast  the  temperature  is  remarkably  uniform  through- 
out the  year.  The  westerly  winds  from  the  Pacific  are 
comfortably  cool  in  summer  and  not  much  colder  in 
winter. 

1.  Name  the  states  that  border  on  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

2.  Name  in  order  the  tier  of  states  south  of  the  eastern  part  of  Mon- 
tana. 

3.  Name  the  states  south  of  Idaho. 

4.  Which  is  farther  north,  the  northern  boundary  of  Washington  or 
the  northern  boundary  of  Maine  ? 

5.  Find  how  many  states  as  large  as  Connecticut  would  be  contained 
in  the  state  of  Oregon. 

6.  From  the  city  of  Denver,  Pikes  Peak  and  Longs  Peak  are  visible. 
In  what  directions  from  that  city  are  they  ? 

7.  Why  is  there  more  moisture  on  mountains  than  on  lowlands? 

8.  Why  are  there  not  salt  lakes  in  regions  where  there  is  a  great 
amount  of  rain  ? 

9.  Make  a  map  of  this  section,  showing  the  mountain  ranges  and 
the  principal  rivers. 


THE   PEOPLE 


173 


35.   The  People 

It  was  a  long  time  after  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States  became  settled  before  much  was  known  about 
the  country  in  the  far  West.  The  pioneers  who  pushed 
westward  over  the  fertile  plains  of  the  Central  Section 
had  no  attractions  to  lead  them  farther  when  they 
reached  the  dry  and  mountainous  regions. 


Pueblo  of  Taos,  New  Mexico 

The  Spaniards,  who  had  taken  possession  of  Mexico, 
occupied  a  portion  of  what  is  now  the  southwestern 
part  of  our  country.  Many  places  there  retain  the  Span- 
ish names,  as  San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles,  and  Santa 
Barbara. 

The  news  of  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  in 
1849  caused  great  excitement,  and  many  thousand 
people  in  the  East  left  their  homes  and  occupations  and 
hastened  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Gold  was  found  not  only 
near  the  coast  but  also  among  the  mountains  farther 
east.     It  was  not  long  before  explorers  found  their  way 


174  THE   UNITED   STATES 

over  the  entire  western  section  of  the  country  and  made 
settlements  in  various  places.  Railroads  were  built  in 
the  lowest  passes  across  the  mountains.  After  the  coun- 
try was  explored  for  mining,  other  industries  sprang  up, 
such  as  agriculture,  stock  raising,  and  lumbering. 

The  Indians  who  were  found  in  the  southern  part  of 
this  section,  in  the  territory  that  is  now  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico,  were  much  more  enlightened  than  those 
in  other  parts  of  the  country.  On  the  reservations 
some  of  them  still  follow  the  customs  of  their  ancestors. 
Their  homes  are  built  of  adobe  bricks  made  of  clay  dried 
in  the  sun.  Some  of  the  houses  are  entered  through 
the  roofs  by  ladders. 

Many  of  the  Indian  homes  in  New  Mexico  were  called 
pueblos.  These  were  very  large  houses  containing 
many  rooms,  in  each  of  which  lived  a  separate  family. 
They  were  like  whole  villages  of  people  under  the  same 
roof.  Some  houses  were  built  on  the  sides  of  cliffs  and 
are  called  cliff  dwellings.  Others  are  simply  caves  dug 
out  of  the  rock,  and  are  called  cave  dwellings.  The 
homes  were  built  in  such  places  as  these  because 
they  could  be  more  easily  defended  against  hostile 
tribes. 

The  Moqui  Indians  in  this  region  still  live  in  pueblos, 
and  many  of  them  are  farmers.  The  Navajos  are  rich 
and  industrious.  They  own  thousands  of  horses  and 
sheep.     Navajo  squaws  make  very  beautiful  blankets. 

The  Indian  reservations  in  this  part  of  the  country 
are  numerous,  but  comparatively  small.  All  of  the 
land  that  the  Indians  now  have  left  in  the  entire  coun- 
try would  not  amount  to  much  more  than  one  half  of 


THE   PEOPLE 


175 


the  state  of  Texas.  There  would  not  be  great  advantage 
in  bringing  the  scattered  tribes  together,  because  they 
differ  widely  from  one  another.  More  than  sixty  differ- 
ent Indian  languages  are  spoken  in  the  United  States. 

There  are  many  thousand  Chinese  and  some  Japanese 
in  the  states  along  the  western  coast.     More  of  these 


Navajo  Woman  weaving  a  Blanket 

people  are  to  be  found  in  the  far  West  than  in  the  East, 
because  they  first  reach  the  Pacific  coast  in  crossing 
from  China  and  Japan. 

The  states  of  the  Western  Section,  as  a  whole,  are 
very  sparsely  inhabited.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  arid 
climate  and  partly  because  of  recent  settlement.  Cali- 
fornia contains  about  as  many  inhabitants  as  all  the 
other  states  of  the  section.  Its  population,  as  well  as 
that  of  Oregon  and  Washington,  is  rapidly  increasing, 


176  THE   UNITED   STATES 

1.  Compare  the  area  and  population  of  Nevada  and  Massachusetts. 

2.  How  do  the  area  and  population  of  the  Western  States,  taken  to- 
gether, compare  with  the  area  and  population  of  New  England  ? 

3.  Why  is  California  more  populous  than  other  Western  States  ? 

4.  There  are  more  Chinese  and  Japanese  in  San  Francisco  and  Los 
Angeles  than  in  any  other  cities.     Locate  these  cities. 

5.  Why  do  many  people  go  to  Southern  California  to  spend  the  winter? 

6.  Why  is  the  Spanish  language  spoken  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico? 

7.  Why  is  the  population  of  the  states  along  the  Pacific  coast  in- 
creasing rapidly  ? 

8.  There  was  a  thriving  pueblo  where  Santa  Fe  now  is,  before  white 
people  came  to  America.     In  what  part  of  New  Mexico  is  Santa  Fe  ? 

36.    Mining 

There  is  more  mining  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States  than  in  any  other  region  of  the  world. 
Not  only  gold  is  obtained  there,  but  also  silver,  copper, 
lead,  and  quicksilver,  besides  some  coal  and  iron.  Rich 
gold  mines  were  first  discovered  in  California,  but  at 
present  more  gold  and  silver  are  found  in  Colorado  than 
in  any  other  state. 

Valuable  mineral  deposits  have  been  discovered  in 
every  one  of  the  Western  States.  Throughout  that  re- 
gion prospectors  are  continually  looking  for  new  mines. 
A  large  amount  of  land  in  the  West  still  belongs  to  the 
government,  and  any  citizen  has  a  right  to  take  a  min- 
ing claim  wherever  he  can  find  valuable  metals. 

Often  different  metals  are  fonnd  in  the  same  mine. 
Several  of  them  may  be  mingled  in  the  same  ore.  The 
ore  that  contains  these  valuable  metals  extends 
through  the  solid  rock  of  the  mountains  in  layers  from 
a  few  inches  to  a  few  feet  thick.  Ages  ago  the  spaces 
occupied  by  these  layers  were  great  cracks,  or  crevices, 
in  the    rock.      Water   far   beneath    the  surface,  which 


MINING 


177 


had  become  heated  very  hot  in  these  volcanic  districts, 
dissolved  a  small  amount  of  the  valuable  metals  aud 
other  mineral  matter.  As  this  water  rose  toward  the 
surface  in  crevices  of  the  rock,  it  was  cooled.  It  could 
not  then  con- 
tain so  much 
of  the  metals 
and  other  sub- 
stances in  a 
dissolved  con- 
dition, and 
these  were  de- 
posited upon 
the  surface  of 
the  rocks.  In 
this  manner 
the  crevices 
were  entirely 
filled. 

As   the   rock 

of  the  mountains  slowly  crumbled  and  the  particles  were 
carried  down  into  the  valleys  by  mountain  streams,  par- 
ticles of  metals  were  likewise  carried  away. 

Much  gold  has  been  found  by  washing  out  particles 
from  the  sand  of  the  beds  and  banks  of  streams.  This 
method  is  called  placer  mining.  In  the  gravel  beds  of  an- 
cient streams,  found  under  the  covering  of  lava  rock? 
much  more  has  been  obtained  in  the  same  manner. 

By  a  process  called  hydraulic  mining,  gold  is  quickly 
separated  from  a  large  quantity  of  sand  and  gravel.  A 
stream   of   water   through  a  hose  is  turned  against  a 


Copyright  by  Keystone  View  Co. 

In  a  Gold  Mine,  Black  Hawk  Canon,  Colorado 


178 


THE   UNITED    STATES 


gravel  bank.  The  water  washes  up  the  sand  and  carries 
it  down  through  a  trough  across  which  bars  of  wood  are 
fastened,  with  quicksilver  placed  between  them.  The 
sand  is  carried  along  to  the  end  of  the  trough,  but  the 
heavier  particles  of  gold  sink  and  remain  between  the 

bars.  The 
quicksilver 
attracts  the 
gold  and  holds 
it.  A  f  t  e  r  - 
ward  the  gold 
is  separated 
from  the  quick- 
silver, and  the 
latter  is  ready 
to  be  used 
again  for 
catching  gold. 
But  the 
greater  part 
of  the  valuable  metals  now  obtained  in  this  region  is 
taken  from  the  rocks  of  the  mountains.  The  ore  is 
first  crushed  into  powder  in  powerful  stamp  mills,  and 
the  particles  of  valuable  metals  are  then  separated.  A 
common  process  of  separating  gold  is  called  the  cyanide 
process.  Powdered  ore  is  stirred  into  a  solution  of  cyan- 
ide of  potassium  and  water,  in  which  the  gold  dissolves. 
The  liquid  is  then  drawn  off.  Zinc,  which  has  a  strong 
attraction  for  gold,  is  placed  in  the  liquid,  and  the  gold 
attaches  itself  to  the  zinc.  The  zinc  and  gold  combina- 
tion is  then  melted,  and  the  two  metals  are  separated. 


Copyright  by  Keystone  View  Co. 

Stamp  Mill  and  Gold  Concentrator 


MINING  179 

For  extracting  silver  from  powdered  ore,  water  and 
quicksilver  are  used.  The  mixture  is  stirred  by  machin- 
ery for  a  long  time,  and  as  particles  of  quicksilver  come 
in  contact  with  particles  of  silver,  they  attract  the  silver 
and  hold  it.  The  quicksilver  is  then  drawn  off,  and  the 
silver  is  separated  from  it  by  distilling.  Heat  converts 
the  quicksilver  into  vapor  as  it  converts  water  into 
steam,  but  the  silver  remains.  When  the  vapor  is  cooled, 
it  becomes  liquid  quicksilver,  ready  for  further  use. 


Leadville,  Colorado 

More  than  a  billion  dollars  worth  of  silver  and  more 
than  two  billion  dollars  worth  of  gold  have  been  taken 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

About  four  fifths  of  all  the  gold  obtained  in  the  world 
is  coined  into  money,  and  the  remainder  is  manufactured 
into  jewelry,  plated  wares,  watch  cases,  and  gold  leaf 
for  gilding  and  dentistry.  About  one  sixth  of  all  the 
silver  is  used  for  small  coins,  and  the  remainder  for  many 
purposes  with  which  every  one  is  familiar. 

There  are  other  very  important  metals  in  this  region 
besides  gold  and  silver.     Montana  mines  more  copper 


180  THE   UNITED   STATES 

than  any  other  state  in  the  country.  It  is  said  that 
more  copper  is  produced  at  Butte,  in  that  state,  than  in 
any  other  mining  region  in  the  world. 

There  are  rich  mines  of  both  lead  and  silver  in  the 
vicinity  of  Leadville,  Colorado,  and  valuable  iron  mines 
in  the  region  west  of  Pueblo,  in  the  same  state.  Much 
quicksilver  comes  from  the  northern  part  of  California. 

1.  Copper  is  found  near  the  source  of  the  Missouri  River.  In  what 
state  does  that  river  rise  ? 

2.  A  great  amount  of  copper  is  mined  at  Anaconda.  In  what  direc- 
tion is  it  from  Butte  ? 

3.  Gold  has  been  washed  out  of  the  gravel  of  which  some  of  the  streets 
of  Helena  are  composed.     Where  is  that  city  ? 

4.  Leadville  is  one  of  the  highest  cities  in  the  world.  On  what  moun- 
tains is  it  ? 

5.  Tucson  is  a  mining  center.     In  what  part  of  Arizona  is  it? 

6.  Denver  is  a  great  distributing  center  for  mining  supplies.    Locate  it. 

7.  In  what  direction  from  Denver  is  Pueblo  ? 

8.  Name  uses  of  quicksilver  besides  those  related  to  mining. 

37.    Agriculture 

Three  conditions  are  necessary  for  the  growth  of 
farm  crops.  The  soil  must  contain  a  sufficient  amount 
of  plant  food,  the  climate  must  be  warm  enough,  and 
there  must  be  rain  enough  to  supply  moisture.  In 
parts  of  western  Washington  and  Oregon  and  northern 
California  the  rainfall  in  winter  is  excessive. 

In  the  rainy  season  on  broad  tracts  of  comparatively 
level  land  in  Washington  and  Oregon  and  in  the  valleys 
of  California,  wheat  and  other  grains  are  sown,  as  on 
the  prairie  regions  in  the  states  farther  east.  The  grain 
ripens  in  the  spring  at  about  the  time  when  the  rains 
are  over,  and  the  dry  weather  that  follows  is  favorable 


AGRICULTURE 


181 


for  harvesting.  In  some  parts  of  these  states  there  is  so 
little  danger  of  rain  in  summer  that  piles  of  grain  and 
hay  are  often  left  for  a  long  time  exposed  in  the  open 
air,  waiting  to  be  sent  to  market. 

The  cultivation  of  hops  is  an  important  industry  in  the 
State  of  Washington.  The  vines  climb  upon  poles,  and 
when  the  crop  is  ripe,  the  hops  are   picked  by  hand. 


A  Washington  Hop  Field 

Much  of  the  harvesting  is  done  by  Indian  women  and 
children. 

The  want  of  moisture  has  made  an  arid  region  of  a 
section  of  the  West  that  amounts  to  more  than  one 
third  of  all  the  land  in  the  United  States.  On  some 
parts  of  this  "  Great  American  Desert  "  there  is  sufficient 
grass  for  grazing,  and  many  cattle  and  sheep  and  some 
horses  are  raised,  as  they  are  on  the  plains  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

In  recent  years  the  amount  of  desert  land  in  the  West 
has  been  somewhat  reduced  by  irrigation.  By  this 
method  the  streams  that  flow  down  from  the  mountains 


182  THE   UNITED   STATES 

across  the  lower  lands  are  used  to  moisten  the  dry  earth 
and  produce  fertile  farms. 

Irrigation  is  not  a  new  invention.  It  was  practiced 
in  Egypt  three  thousand  years  ago.  More  than  fifty 
years  ago  the  Mormons,  who  settled  in  Utah,  began  to 
irrigate  the  arid  land.     By  the  use  of  water  flowing  from 


Irrigating  an  Alfalfa  Field 

the  Wasatch  range  of  mountains,  they  have  changed  a 
desert  region  into  rich  and  productive  farming  land. 

Wherever  the  land  slopes  away  from  a  river,  some  of 
the  water  may  be  conducted  by  canals  and  used  for  irri- 
gation. Some  irrigating  canals  are  extended  for  many 
miles.  Whenever  water  is  needed  for  the  land  along 
the  canal,  it  is  drawn  through  side  ditches,  and  either 
flows  over  the  surface  and  floods  it,  or  runs  in  small 
ditches  made  a  few  feet  apart  and  soaks  into  the  soil. 

In  order  to  increase  the  amount  of  water  that  may  be 
used  for  irrigation  during  the  dry  season,  large  reservoirs 
are  often  constructed  by  building  dams  across  the  valleys 
of  streams  from  the  mountains.     Large  bodies  of  water 


AGRICULTURE 


183 


are  in  this  way  prevented  from  running  to  waste  during 
spring  freshets,  and  the  water  is  afterward  drawn 
through  the 
dams  into  the 
rivers  as  fast 
as  it  is  needed. 
Irrigating 
works  are  of- 
ten owned  by 
stock  compa- 
nies, and  farm- 
ers  pay  for 
their  supply 
of  water  very 
much  as  city 
residents  pay 
their  water 
bills. 

The  nation- 
al government 
is  now  assist- 
ing in  irrigat- 
ing Western 
lands.  With 
millions  of 
dollars  received  from  the  sale  and  rental  of  public  lands, 
the  government  constructs  expensive  works  and  after- 
ward permits  farmers,  who  settle  upon  the  land,  to  pay 
the  expense  gradually  from  the  sale  of  crops. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  irrigating  systems 
is  that  which  conducts  water  from  the  Colorado  River 


Irrigation  Canal,  Platte  Canon 


184 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


over  portions  of  the  Imperial  Valley,  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia. By  depositing  mud  the  river  has  elevated  its 
bed  above  the  surface  of  the  land.     A  dam  has  been 

constructed  across  the 
river,  and  water  is 
conducted  through  ca- 
nals, or  ditches,  across 
the  sloping  desert. 
As  the  ditches  are  ex- 
tended and  more  and 
more  land  is  cultiva- 
ted, this  great  stretch 
of  once  useless  desert 
is  becoming  one  of  the 
great  garden  spots  of 
the  country. 

The  states  along  the 
Pacific  coast  are  spe- 
cially noted  for  produc- 
ing great  quantities  of 
fruit  of  various  kinds, 
both  where  there  is 
sufficient  rain  and  else- 
where by  irrigation.  In  the  warm  valleys  of  central 
and  southern  California,  in  addition  to  such  fruits  as 
are  common  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  are  raised 
many  oranges,  lemons,  grape  fruit,  olives,  figs,  and 
choice  grapes.  In  the  warm  and  dry  air  of  summer 
many  grapes,  prunes,  and  other  fruits  are  dried.  Both 
fresh  fruit  and  dried  fruit  from  California  have  a  world- 
wide reputation. 


Reclamation  Centers  of  the  West 

The  black  portions  show  the  land  to  be  irrigated 
by  the  works  the  Government  has  built  or  is  now 
building. 


AGRICULTURE  185 

The  California  seedless  navel  orange  trees  have  an 
interesting  history.  In  the  year  1874  two  orange 
trees,  which  had  been  grown  from  cuttings  imported 
from  South  America  by  the  Agricultural  Department  of 
our  government  at  Washington,  were  sent  to  a  man  in 
California  to  be  tested.  The  trees  throve  so  well  in  that 
climate,  and  their  fruit  proved  to  be  so  desirable,  that 


Orange  Grove,  California 

many  orange  orchards  were  grafted  with  buds  from  these 
so-called  "  Washington  navels."  At  that  time  the  orange 
industry  in  California  was  small,  but  the  crop  now 
amounts  to  many  thousand  carloads  each  year. 

Many  walnuts,  almonds,  and  other  nuts  are  also  raised 
in  the  valleys  of  California. 

1.  Large  quantities  of  wheat  are  grown  in  the  valleys  of  the  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaquin  rivers.     In  what  part  of  California  are  these  valleys  ? 

2.  If  a  car  holds  400  boxes  of  oranges,  how  many  boxes  would  there  be 
in  a  California  crop  of  30,000  carloads  ? 

3.  If  these  oranges  were  distributed  among  the  people  of  the  country, 
about  how  many  people  would  there  be  for  each  box  of  oranges  ? 


186  THE   UNITED   STATES 

4.  Why  must  an  irrigation  ditch  be  on  the  upper  side  of  a  field  that  is 
to  be  watered  ? 

5.  A  large  tract  of  land  is  irrigated  near  the  city  of  Denver.  From 
what  river  is  the  water  obtained? 

6.  There  is  irrigated  land  in  the  vicinity  of  Cheyenne  and  Laramie. 
In  what  part  of  Wyoming  are  they  ? 

7.  The  dam  built  across  the  Colorado  River  for  irrigating  purposes  is 
at  Yuma.     In  what  part  of  Arizona  is  it? 

8.  On  which  side  of  the  \Vrasatch  Mountains  is  Salt  Lake  City? 

9.  Why  are  farmers  whose  land  is  irrigated  more  certain  of  raising 
good  crops  than  those  who  depend  upon  rain  ? 

10.  Why  does  it  cost  more  to  ship  produce  from  the  central  part  of  the 
country  into  this  mountainous  region  than  to  ship  it  the  same  distance 
toward  the  east  ? 

38.    Forests 

The  forests  of  the  Western  States  are  very  valuable. 
In  Washington,  Oregon,  and  northern  California  there 
are  tracts  of  timber  land  more  valuable  than  any  of 
equal  size  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  This  is  because 
the  soil  is  deep  and  rich  and  the  rainfall  is  abundant. 

The  tall  trees  of  the  Pacific  States  are  the  marvel  of 
the  world.  The  largest  of  them  are  the  sequoias,  often 
called  the  "  Big  Trees  "  of  California.  Their  foliage  is 
like  that  of  the  cedar,  and  they  belong  to  the  same  gen- 
eral family  of  trees.  When  full  grown,  these  giant  trees 
may  be  over  three  hundred  feet  tall,  and  thirty  feet  in 
diameter  near  the  ground.  When  a  sequoia  tree  is  cut 
down,  the  wood  appears  in  successive  rings  extending 
out  from  the  center.  Each  ring  indicates  the  growth 
of  the  tree  for  a  year.  The  rings  of  one  tree  indicated 
that  it  had  stood  over  four  thousand  years. 

The  sequoias  were  once  widely  scattered  over  the 
western  part  of  the  country,  but  not  many  are  now  left. 
There  are  several  groves  of  them  on  the  western  slopes 


FORESTS 


187 


of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  and  some  of  these  are 
protected  from  further  destruction  and  set  apart  as  pub- 
lic parks  by  the  state  and  national  governments. 

In  northwestern  California  are  the  famous  forests  of 
redwood  trees,  which  are  regarded  as  cousins  of  the 
sequoias,  but  which  grow  only  on  the  lower  lands.     In 


Among  the  Big  Trees,  Mariposa,  California 

Washington  and  Oregon  the  most  common  forest  tree  is 
the  Douglas  fir,  but  there  are  also  many  pine,  spruce, 
cedar,  and  hemlock  trees. 

In  the  arid  regions  at  a  greater  distance  from  the 
coast  there  is  sufficient  rain  upon  the  mountains  to  sup- 
port the  growth  of  forests.  Even  in  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico  there  are  extensive  forests  of  pine. 

A  large  amount  of  lumber  is  used  in  the  mines  of  the 
Western  States,  since  many  heavy  timbers  are  required 
to  prevent  the  mines  from  caving  in,  but  much  valuable 
western  timber  is  also  shipped  to  foreign  countries. 

There  are  so  many  forests  in  different  parts  of  the 


188  THE   UNITED   STATES 

country  that  we  might  be  led  to  suppose  that  we  shall 
always  have  an  abundant  supply  of  wood  and  lumber, 
but  it  has  been  found  that  we  are  cutting  down  the  trees 
twice  or  three  times  as  fast  as  they  will  grow.  If  this 
should  continue  without  change,  it  would  not  be  very 
long  before  all  the  forests  would  disappear.  This  would 
mean  a  famine  in  lumber  and  fuel  and  also  heavy  loss 
in  other  ways. 

Forest  trees  are  a  greater  benefit  to  the  country  than 
most  persons  imagine.  They  keep  the  soil  moist  and  prob- 
ably increase  the  rainfall.  When  a  shower  of  rain  falls 
upon  the  dry  surface  of  naked  hills,  the  greater  part  of 
the  water  runs  quickly  down  the  slopes  into  brooks  and 
then  into  rivers  and  so  on  toward  the  ocean.  But  where 
the  hills  are  covered  with  forests,  decaying  leaves  on  the 
ground  hold  the  water  like  a  sponge.  The  roots  of  the 
trees  also  make  the  surface  of  the  ground  uneven,  and 
produce  numerous  little  basins  which  become  pools  of 
water.  The  water  thus  held  back  slowly  soaks  into  the 
ground  and  moistens  it.  Some  of  it  afterward  passes 
into  the  air  by  evaporation  and  helps  to  produce  rain 
again. 

As  rain  water  flows  down  the  slopes  of  treeless  hills, 
it  carries  away  much  of  the  finest  and  best  soil  and 
deposits  it  in  the  rivers  or  in  the  ocean. 

But  only  a  part  of  the  story  has  yet  been  told.  The 
flow  of  water  in  rivers,  upon  which  manufacturing, 
navigation,  and  irrigation  are  dependent,  is  largely 
regulated  by  forests.  These  hold  back  a  large  amount 
of  water  in  times  of  heavy  rain,  and  thus  prevent 
damaging    floods.        The    water   thus   held    in   reserve 


FOKESTS 


189 


slowly  soaks  into  the  soil  and  gradually  trickles  out 
again  in  springs  and  brooks,  which  keep  up  the  flow  of 
rivers  for  manufacturing,  irrigation,  and  river  traffic 
through  periods  of  drought.  On  the  other  hand,  where 
trees  are  wanting,  a  great  quantity  of  water  msij  find 
its    way    quickly    into   rivers    and    cause    destructive 


i  1                       f~ 

-.:V       ^B8 

-■•                              '    _.  '"~  • 

"       I 

Lumbering  in  Washington 

freshets,  and  soon  after  these  are  over,  the  mills,  the 
irrigation  ditches,  and  the  river  boats  may  be  in  need 
of  the  water  that  has  passed  on  so  rapidly  to  the  sea. 

Millions  of  dollars  are  expended  in  making  rivers 
navigable  by  removing  from  their  channels  mud  that 
has  been  washed  down  from  the  unprotected  hills. 

If  a  new  tree  were  permitted  to  grow  in  the  place  of 
every  large  one  that  is  cut  down,  there  might  be  some 
hope  of  saving  the  forests,  but  lumbermen  are  usually 
careless  about  this  matter,  and  often  destroy  all  trees, 
both    large    and   small.     Millions  of    dollars   worth  of 


190 


THE   UNITED    STATES 


forests  are  destroyed  every  year  by  fires  which  are  fre- 
quently started  through  carelessness. 

Our  government  has  recently  taken  measures  to  pro- 
tect as  much  forest  land  as  possible.  Many  of  the 
forests  on  government  land  have  been  set  apart  as  forest 
reserves.  There  are  now  over  one  hundred  of  such 
reserves,  and  they  are  mostly  in  the   Western  States. 


The  black 


portions  indicate  the  present  reserves;  the  shaded  sections  in  the  east  show 
the  proposed  Appalachian  and  White  Mountain  reserves 


They  are  in  the  charge  of  government  employees,  called 
forest  rangers.  These  men  ride  about  on  horseback 
through  the  forests  to  prevent  fires,  to  take  charge  of 
the  sale  of  full-grown  trees,  and  to  enforce  the  game 
laws.  Young  men  who  enter  this  service  must  be  able 
to  compute  the  amount  of  lumber  in  trees.  They  must 
know  how  to  put  up  a  tent,  to  manage  a  wild  horse, 
and  to  fight  fire,  and  they  must  be  familiar  with  the 
laws  for  protecting  game. 

The  government  is  striving  to  persuade  private  land- 
owners to  plant  young  trees  and  help  to  increase  the 


CITIES  191 

amount  of  forest  land.  The  governments  of  some  of 
the  states  have  also  purchased  timber  lands  and  are 
holding  them  as  forest  reserves. 

1.  Name  several  other  large  timber  sections  in  the  country  besides 
those  in  the  Western  States. 

2.  The  National  Bureau  of  Forestry  is  trying  to  find  substances  that 
will  take  the  place  of  wood.     Why  should  it  do  this? 

3.  If  our  forest  reserves  should  amount  to  160,000,000  acres,  find 
how  many  square  miles  they  would  cover. 

4.  Regarding  the  land  area  of  the  United  States  as  3,000,000  square 
miles,  find  about  what  part  of  all  the  territory  of  the  country  the  forest 
reserves  would  cover. 

5.  Why  are  there  larger  forest  trees  on  the  western  slopes  of  the 
mountains  near  the  Pacific  than  on  the  eastern  slopes  ? 

6.  A  large  amount  of  redwood  lumber  is  shipped  from  the  port  of 
Eureka.     On  what  part  of  the  California  coast  is  it? 

7.  Some  of  the  largest  lumber  mills  in  the  world  are  on  Puget  Sound. 
Why  should  there  be  large  lumber  mills  there  ? 

8.  Make  a  map  of  the  Western  States,  and  indicate,  by  shading,  the 
location  of  the  principal  forest  reserves. 

39.   Cities 

In  a  region  so  arid  and  so  sparsely  populated  as  the 
Western  States  we  should  expect  to  find  but  few  large 
cities,  and  these  chiefly  along  the  western  coast. 

The  finest  harbor  on  the  Pacific  coast  is  in  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay.  This  bay  Avas  formed  by  a  slight  sinking  of 
the  coast,  which  made  deeper  water  in  the  valley  of  the 
Sacramento  River.  The  great  interest  in  gold  mining 
in  California,  which  was  aroused  in  1849,  gave  San 
Francisco  a  vigorous  start,  and  since  then  its  size  has 
rapidly  increased. 

In  the  year  1906  a  large  part  of  the  city  was  laid  in 
ruins  by  a  terrible  earthquake  and  a  fire  that  followed 


192 


THE    UNITED   STATES 


the  earthquake.  Many  thousands  of  its  people  were 
made  homeless,  and  for  a  time  its  population  was  much 
reduced.  But  since  then  the  city  has  been  recovering 
so  rapidly  as  to  astonish  the  world.  It  is  the  great 
central  port  of  our  Western  coast,  and  from  it  steamships 
make  their  trips  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  the  Philippines, 
Japan,  China,  Australia,  South  America,  Europe,  and 

cities  of  our 
Eastern  coast. 
The  city  of 
Oakland, 
across  the 
bay  from  San 
Francisco,  is 
really  a  part 
of  the  same 
commercial 
center. 

Ocean  ves- 
sels can  pro- 
ceed up  the 
Columbia 

River  and  the  Willamette  River,  as  far  as  Portland,  Ore- 
gon, which  is  about  one  hundred  miles  from  the  Pacific. 
Immense  quantities  of  flour  from  the  mills  of  Portland 
are  exported  to  China  and  Japan. 

Salmon  fishing  on  the  Columbia  River  and  in  bays 
along  the  coast  is  a  business  of  great  importance.  The 
young  salmon  are  first  hatched  in  the  mountain  streams 
that  form  the  source  of  the  Columbia,  and  soon  swim 
down  the  river  to  the  sea.     After  four  or   five  years 


Copyright  by  Keystone  View  Co. 

Canning  Salmon 


CITIES 


193 


they  strive  to  find  their  way  up  to  the  sources  of  the 
river  again,  where  they  may  lay  their  eggs  and  thus 
complete  their  life  history.  At  such  a  time  great  quan- 
tities of  the  fish  are  easily  caught  in  nets.  The  fish 
wheel,  which  is  also  used  for  catching  salmon,  operates 
in   a   peculiar   manner.     A  kind  of  water  wheel  with 


A  View  in  Seattle 

nets  attached  is  fastened  to  a  boat  and  placed  in 
the  river  where  the  fish  are  accustomed  to  swim.  The 
current  keeps  the  wheel  turning,  and  as  the  fish  swim 
into  the  nets  they  are  carried  up  and  dropped  into  the 
boat.  Some  salmon  from  the  Pacific  coast  are  shipped 
fresh  to  Eastern  markets,  but  more  are  canned  in  factories 
along  the  river.  Canned  salmon  from  the  Columbia 
River  is  well  known  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 

There  are  excellent  harbors  on  Puget  Sound  where 
the  cities  of  Seattle  and  Tacoma  are  situated.  These 
harbors  and  the  cities  located  by  them  have  come  into 
great  prominence  since  the  United  States  has  begun  to 


194 


THE    UNITED   STATES 


increase  its  trade  with  the  countries  across  the  Pacific, 
and  since  gold  mines  were  discovered  in  Alaska. 
Seattle  and  Tacoma  are  near  the  great  forests,  and 
lumber  mills  have  added  much  to  their  industries. 
Seattle  is  the  largest  city  of  the  Northwest  and  is 
growing  very  rapidly. 


Los  Angeles,  looking  south  from  the  Court  House 

In  southern  California  the  chief  city  is  Los  Angeles. 
It  is  the  center  for  a  rich  fruit-growing  district.  Al- 
though it  is  at  some  distance  from  the  sea,  a  railroad 
connects  it  with  the  port  of  San  Pedro,  where  the  harbor 
is  protected  by  a  breakwater  upon  which  the  govern- 
ment has  expended  nearly  three  million  dollars.  Many 
people  who  remove  to  southern  California  because  of 
the  favorable  climate  make  their  abode  in  Los  Angeles, 
so  that  its  population  increases  rapidly.  The  enterprise 
of  that  city  is  manifested  in  the  fact  that  it  has  been  ex- 
pending over  twenty  million  dollars  for  the  purpose  of 
conducting  from   Mt.  Whitney,  which  is   two  hundred 


CITIES 


195 


and  forty  miles  away,  sufficient  water  to  supply  a  large 
city,  and  besides  this,  to  irrigate  thousands  of  acres. 

San  Diego  is  situated  upon  an  excellent  harbor  near 
the  southern  limit  of  our  Pacific  coast.  Balmy  breezes 
from  the  Pacific  give  it  a  delightful  climate  in  both 
winter  and  summer.     Coronado  Beach,  near  San  Diego, 


■HUklf "  ji  ;M± 

■  .                  .;; 

5JJE 

li| 

-^..-...vlWHfl'     'l^gj 

t§r^t 

-*!%         _  _  inpio--^— Mli'      I,  ii  i  itighi^ 

Denver,  Colorado 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 


is  a  famous  resort  for  rest  and  recreation.  When  the 
Panama  Canal  is  completed,  this  will  be  the  nearest 
American  port  for  ships  passing  up  the  Western  coast, 
and  the  harbor  will  then  be  of  great  importance. 

Denver  is  the  largest  of  the  inland  cities  of  the  West. 
It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  the 
vicinity  of  a  rich  mining  district,  and  at  a  point  where 
there  is  sufficient  water  for  irrigating  a  large  territory 
of  fertile  land.  It  has  become  a  great  railroad  center. 
Large  quantities  of  ore  from  neighboring  mines  are 
taken  to  Denver  for  smelting.  Because  it  is  in  an  ele- 
vated region  and  has  a  dry  climate,  it  is  a  resort  for 
many  persons  who  are  affected  with  lung  troubles. 


196 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


Spokane,  in  Washington,  is  near  the  falls  of  Spokane 
River,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  great  wheat-producing 
country.     It  manufactures  flour  and  lumber. 


HHHH 

^SifBSPwJT 

The  Falls  at  Spokane 

1.  Name  the  capital  city  of  each  of  the  Western  States. 

2.  Name  the  largest  city  of  each  of  these  states. 

3.  Colorado  Springs  is  a  popular  health  resort.     In   what  direction 
is  it  from  Denver? 

4.  Ogden  is  a  great  railroad  center.     In  what    direction  is  it   from 
Salt  Lake  City? 

5.  Santa  Barbara  is  a   popular  health  resort.     About  how  far  is  it 
from  Los  Angeles? 

6.  Sacramento  and  San  Jose  are  important  centers  for  fruit  trade. 
In  what  direction  is  each  of  these  from  San  Francisco  ? 

7.  Stockton  is  a  grain-shipping  center  and  has  large  flour  mills.     In 
what  river  valley  is  it  ? 

8.  Make  a  map  of  the  AVestern  States,  showing  the  location  of  all  the 
cities  that  have  been  mentioned. 


40.    Interesting  Localities 

The  Western  States  contain  many  points  of  interest 
and  much  attractive  scenery.  Among  the  Eocky 
Mountains  and  the  Sierras  there  are  sections  as  grand 


INTERESTING   LOCALITIES 


197 


as  in  the  Alps  of  Switzerland.  A  trip  by  railroad 
across  these  ranges  of  mountains  affords  a  great 
variety     of    scenery.        For    a    time    the    train    may 


Georgetown  Loop,  Colorado 

pass  through  a  deep  gorge  beside  the  roaring  torrent  of 
some  river.  Later  it  will  move  in  curves,  around 
mountain  sides  and  perhaps  form  a  loop  by  making  a 
complete  circuit  in  its  steady  upward  climb,  with  the 
snow-capped  summits  of  the  mountains  above  and  deep 
valleys  below. 

The  mountains  are  mostly  covered  with  trees,  but 
where  they  are  bare,  the  rocks  and  soil  present  a 
variety  of  coloring.  Many  wonderful  forms  have  been 
carved  in  the  rocks  by  the  forces  of  nature  during  the 
long  ages  of  the  past. 


198 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


In  the  Garden  of  the  Gods  in  Colorado,  rocks  of  many 
colors  have  been  so  worn  by  sand  blown  against  them  and 
by  other  causes  that,  when  seen  at  a  distance  from  the 
mountains,  they  appear  like  a  garden  of  flowers. 

One  of  the  popular  pleasure  resorts  of  the  West  is 
the  region  of  the  Yosemite  Lake  and  the  Yosemite  River, 


Gateway  to  the  Garden  of  the  Gods 

located  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  range 
of  mountains  in  central  California.  The  lake  is  now 
included  in  a  national  reserve  called  the  Yosemite 
National  Park.  The  park  also  contains  some  of  the 
sequoias,  or  Big  Trees. 

The  river  that  flows  from  the  lake  leaps  over  a 
precipice  fifteen  hundred  feet  high,  then  passes  on  over 
a  series  of  waterfalls  and  cascades. 

The  Mariposa  Grove,  which  adjoins  the  Yosemite 
Park,  also  contains  many  of  the  Big  Trees.  It  is  a  re- 
serve set  apart  by  the  state  of  California. 


INTERESTING   LOCALITIES 


199 


A  much  more  wonderful  and  celebrated  national  park 
is  the  Yellowstone  Park,  lying  between  the  states  of 
Wyoming,  Montana,  and  Idaho.  It  contains  more 
than  a  thousand  hot  springs  and  geysers.  Some  of  the 
springs    consist  of  boiling  mud.     One  of  these  covers 


The  Yosemite  Valley 

more  than  an  acre,  and  looks  like  an  immense  pot  of 
paint.  Boiling  water  flows  from  other  springs,  and 
gradually  cools  as  it  falls  over  a  series  of  terraces. 
The  hot  water  contains  various  kinds  of  matter,  and 
as  it  cools  some  of  this  matter  is  deposited,  show- 
ing a  variety  of  beautiful  colors.  One  of  the  springs, 
by  its  deposits  of  this  matter,  has  built  up  a  white  hill 
more  than  two  hundred  feet  high. 

The   geysers  are  the  most  wonderful  objects  in  the 
park.     Through  the  explosion  of  steam  produced  by  the 


200 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


hot  rocks  beneath,  they  throw  streams  of  boiling  water 
high  into  the  air.  Some  of  them  are  active  at  intervals 
of  about  an  hour,  and  others  at  intervals  of  several  hours, 
or  even  of  several  days.  The  Grand  Geyser  is  the 
greatest  in  the  world.  It  throws  its  stream  to  a  height 
of  more  than  three  hundred  feet. 

The  Yellowstone  Lake  is  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water 

among  the  moun- 
tains, eight  thou- 
sand feet  above 
the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  river 
flows  down  by  a 
succession  of  falls 
and  through  a 
gorge,  or  canon, 
one  thousand 
feet  deep,  the 
walls  of  which 
are  rendered  ex- 
tremelv  beautiful 
by  a  variety  of 
coloring. 

The  grandest 
of  all  this  scen- 
ery, to  which 
many  thousands 
of  travelers  are  attracted,  is  the  great  gorge  in  Arizona, 
called  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado  River.  In 
comparison  with  this  the  gorges  or  canons  of  all  other 
rivers  in  the  country  fall  into  insignificance.     As  we  go 


Grand  Geyser,  Yellowstone  Park 


INTEKESTING   LOCALITIES 


201 


to  the  brink  of  the  canon  and  look  down  the  sides,  we 
behold  vast  embankments  consisting  of  layers  upon 
layers  colored  in  red,  yellow,  brown,  and  gray.  Across 
to  the  edge  on  the  other  side  it  is  a  distance  of  ten  or 
twelve  miles,  and  if  we  should  wish  to  go  over,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  travel  for  hundreds  of  miles,  because 


Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado  River 

there  is  no  bridge  or  way  across,  and  the  canon  is 
three  hundred  miles  long. 

Down  at  the  bottom,  at  a  distance  of  a  mile  below 
us,  the  river  looks  like  a  mere  brook  winding  its  way 
along.  If  we  follow  the  path  that  leads  down,  we  must 
undertake  a  difficult  walk  of  several  miles,  and  when  we 
reach  the  river,  we  shall  seem  to  be  shut  in  between 
lofty  walls  with  a  long  and  narrow  strip  of  sky  above. 

Vast  as  may  seem  this  piece  of  carving  out  of  the 
face  of  the  earth,  it  is  all  the  work  of  the  stream  of  water 


202  THE   UNITED   STATES 

now  flowing  at  the  bottom.  There  was  a  time  when 
the  river  flowed  along  the  surface,  which  is  a  mile  above 
its  present  bed.  As  this  region  was  slowly  elevated  the 
slope  of  the  bed  of  the  river  was  increased,  and  the 
canon  was  gradually  deepened. 

As  we  have  learned  that  all  streams  of  swiftly  flow- 
ing water  slowly  wear  away  their  channels,  so  this 
river,  during  past  ages,  has  wrought  its  mighty  work. 
If  we  look  for  the  material  that  has  been  removed  in 
making  this  gigantic  carving,  we  shall  find  that  it  has 
been  used  for  filling  the  bed  of  the  gulf  and  producing 
a  vast  river  delta. 

1.  The  railroad  from  Leadville  to  Pueblo  passes  through  a  deep  gorge, 
close  to  the  river,  and  a  part  of  the  way  over  the  river.  What  river  is 
it? 

2.  The  Garden  of  the  Gods  is  near  Pikes  Peak.  In  what  direction 
is  it  from  Denver  ? 

3.  In  what  direction  from  San  Francisco  is  the  Yosemite  National 
Park? 

4.  Into  what  river  does  the  Yosemite  River  flow? 

5.  In  what  mountain  system  is  the  Yellowstone  Park? 

6.  Into  what  river  does  the  Yellowstone  River  flow  ? 

7.  Compare  the  size  of  the  Yellowstone  Park  with  that  of  the  state 
of  Rhode  Island. 

8.  Through  what  states  and  along  the  border  of  what  states  does  the 
Colorado  River  flow? 

9.  Into  what  body  of  water  does  the  Colorado  River  flow  ? 

REVIEW 

1.  Describe  the  physical  features  of  the  "Western  Section. 

2.  "Where  are  the  Columbia  Plateau,  the  Colorado  Plateau,  and  the 
Great  Basin  ? 

3.  Give  the  names  of  some  extinct  volcanoes. 

4.  What  have  been  the  effects  of  volcanic  eruptions  in  this  part  of 
the  country? 

5.  Why  are  the  plateaus  and  valleys  of  the  Western  Section  mostly 
arid? 


REVIEW 


Portland  and  Mt. 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co. 

Hood 


6.  What  vegetation  grows  in  these  desert  regions  ? 

7.  Explain  how  Great  Salt  Lake  has  become  very  salt. 

8.  How  is  salt  obtained  from  the  water  of  Great  Salt  Lake  ? 

9.  Tell  about  the  temperature  of  the  Western  Section. 

10.  What  part  of  this  section  did  the  Spaniards  once  occupy  ? 

11.  Explain  how  California  became  settled. 

12.  Tell  about  the  Indians  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 

13.  Where  are  most  of  the  Indians  now  located  ? 

14.  Why  are  there  many  Chinese  and  Japanese  in  the  states  along  the 
Pacific  coast? 

15.  Why  is  the  population  of  the  Western  States  very  sparse? 

16.  What  minerals  are  obtained  in  the  Western  States  ? 

17.  How  were  metals  formed  in  the  rocks  of  the  mountains? 

18.  Explain  placer  mining  and  hydraulic  mining. 

19.  Explain  the  cyanide  process  of  extracting  gold  from  ore. 

20.  Explain  how  silver  is  obtained  from  ore. 

21.  For  what  purposes  are  gold  and  silver  used? 

22.  Where  is  much  quicksilver  found? 

23.  State  three  conditions  that  are    necessary  for   successful   agri- 
culture. 

24.  Tell  about  the  wheat  crop  of  the  Pacific  States. 

25.  Explain  the  hop  industry. 

26.  How  large  is  the  Great  American  Desert  ? 

27.  State  how  the  Mormons  have  prospered  by  irrigation. 

28.  Explain  the  process  of  irrigation. 


204  THE    UNITED   STATES 

29.  How  does  the  building  of  dams  across  mountain  streams  aid  in 
irrigation  ? 

30.  State  how  the  government  is  assisting  in  the  work  of  irrigation. 

31.  Describe  the  irrigation  works  of  the  Imperial  Valley. 

32.  Which  of  the  Western  States  produce  much  fruit? 

33.  What  special  kinds  of  fruit  thrive  in  southern  California? 

34.  Give  the  history  of  the  Washington  navel  orange. 

35.  Tell  about  the  forests  of  the  Western  States. 

36.  Describe  the  "  Big  Trees  "  of  California. 

37.  Where  are  the  redwood  forests  ? 

38.  What  trees  are  common  in  Washington  and  Oregon  ? 

39.  How  do  forest  trees  increase  moisture  and  rainfall  ? 

40.  How  do  they  prevent  much  soil  from  being  carried  away? 

41.  How  is  the  flow  of  water  in  rivers  regulated  by  forests  ? 

42.  How  do  forests  prevent  rivers  from  becoming  filled  with  mud? 

43.  Tell  about  our  forest  reserves. 

44.  Why  are  there  but  few  large  cities  in  the  Western  States? 

45.  Tell  about  the  harbor  of  San  Francisco. 

46.  Tell  about  the  San  Francisco  earthquake. 

47.  Describe  the  location  of  Portland,  Oregon. 

48.  Tell  about  the  salmon  industry. 

49.  Why  have  Seattle  and  Tacoma  a  favorable  location  ? 

50.  Tell  about  Los  Angeles. 

51.  What  advantages  has  San  Diego? 

52.  Describe  the  location  of  Denver. 

53.  Describe  a  trip  by  railroad  across  the  mountains  of  the  West. 

54.  Describe  the  Garden  of  the  Gods. 

55.  What  are  the  interesting  attractions  in  the  Yosemite  National 
Park  ? 

56.  What  is  the  Mariposa  Grove  ? 

57.  Give  a  description  of  the  Yellowstone  Park. 

58.  Describe  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado  River. 

59.  Explain  how  the  river  has  produced  this  canon. 


APPENDIX 


Area  and  Population 


Alabama 

Arizona  . 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbi 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada   . 

New  Hampshin 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 


Area  in  Square 

Population 

Estimated  Pop- 

Miles 

1900 

ulation  1909 

51,998 

1,828,697 

2,100,000 

.   113,956 

122,931 

200,000 

53,335 

1,311,564 

1,450,000 

.   158,297 

1,485,053 

1,800,000 

103,948 

539,700 

800,000 

4,965 

908,420 

1,100,000 

2,370 

184,735 

200,000 

70 

278,718 

340,000 

58,666 

528,542 

683,000 

59,265 

2,216,331 

2,675,000 

84,313 

161,772 

350,000 

56,665 

4,821,550 

5,395,000 

36,354 

2,516,462 

2,775,000 

56,147 

2,231,853 

2,232,000 

82,158 

1,470,495 

1,700,000 

40,598 

2,147,174 

2,250,000 

48,506 

1,381,625 

1,685,000 

33,040 

694,466 

756,000 

12,327 

1,188,044 

1,190,000 

8,266 

2,805,346 

3,260,000 

57,980 

2,420,982 

2,875,000 

84,682 

1,751,394 

2,125,000 

46,865 

1,551,270 

2,000,000 

69,420 

3,106,665 

3,580,000 

.   146,572 

243,329 

300,000 

77,520 

1,066,300 

1,350,000 

110,690 

42,335 

132,000 

9,341 

411,588 

440,000 

8,224 

1,883,669 

2,500,000 

122,634 

195,310 

500,000 

49,204 

7,268,894 

8,550,000 

206 

APPENDIX 


20< 


Area  in  Square 

Population 

Estimated  Pop- 

Miles 

1900 

ulation  1909 

North  Carolina       .         .         .        52,426 

1,893,810 

2,500,000 

North  Dakota 

70,837 

319,146 

600,000 

Ohio 

41,040 

4,157,545 

4,615,000 

Oklahoma 

70,057 

790,391 

1,950,000 

Oregon 

96,699 

413,536 

650,000 

Pennsylvania 

.       45,126 

6,302,115 

7,450,000 

Rhode  Island 

1,248 

428,556 

511,000 

South  Carolina 

30,989 

1,340,316 

1,500,000 

South  Dakota 

,       77,615 

401,570 

500,000 

Tennessee 

42,022 

2,020,616 

2,220,000 

Texas 

265,896 

3,048,710 

4,000,000 

Utah 

84,990 

276,749 

350,000 

Vermont 

9,564 

343,641 

340,000 

Virginia 

42,627 

1,854,184 

2,100,000 

Washington 

69,127 

518,103 

1,250,000 

West  Virginia 

24,170 

958,800 

1,200,000 

Wisconsin 

56,066 

2,069,042 

2,410,000 

Wyoming 

97,914 

92,531 

125,000 

Total 

3,026,789 

75,994,577 

91,564,000 

Population  of  Cities  of  over  35;000 


Esti- 

Esti- 

Popula- 

mated 

Popula- 

mated 

tion  1900 

Popula- 
tion 1909 

tion  1900 

Popula- 
tion 1909 

Akron,  Ohio 

42,728 

48,000 

Charleston,  S.C. 

55,807 

65,000 

Albany,  N.Y. 

94,151 

100,000 

Chattanooga,  Term. 

30,154 

85,000 

Allen  town,  Pa. 

35,416 

42,200 

Chelsea,  Mass. 

34,072 

38,000 

Altoona,  Pa. 

38,973 

41,300 

Chicago,  111. 

1,698,575 

2,575,000 

Atlanta,  Ga. 

89,872 

150,000 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

325,902 

475,000 

Atlantic  City,  N.J. 

27,838 

38,000 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

381,768 

525,000 

Augusta,  Ga. 

39,441 

40,500 

Columbus,  Ohio 

125,560 

180,000 

Baltimore,  M.D. 

508,957 

650,000 

Covington,  Ky. 

42,938 

60,000 

Bayonne,  N.J. 

32,722 

43,000 

Dallas,  Tex. 

42,638 

100,000 

Binghamton,  N.Y. 

39,647 

47.000 

Davenport,  Iowa 

35,254 

50,000 

Birmingham,  Ala. 

38,415 

60',000 

Dayton,  Ohio 

85,333 

130,000 

Boston,  Mass. 

560,892 

625,000 

Denver,  Col. 

133,859 

200,000 

Bridgeport,   Conn. 

70,996 

100,000 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 

62,139 

95,000 

Brockton,  Mass. 

40,063 

48,000 

Detroit,  Mich. 

285,704 

400,000 

Buffalo,  N.Y. 

352,387 

420,000 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

36,297 

50,000 

Cambridge,   Mass. 

91,886 

100,000 

Duluth,  Minn. 

52,969 

90,000 

Camden,  N.J. 

75,935 

100,000 

East  St.  Louis,  111. 

29,655 

36,000 

Canton,  Ohio 

30,667 

40,000 

Elizabeth,  N.J. 

52,130 

70,000 

208 

APPE 

Esti- 

NDLX 

Esti- 

Popula- 

mated 

Popula- 

mated 

tion  1900 

Popula- 
tion 1909 

tion  1900 

Popula- 
tion 1909 

Elmira,  N.Y. 

35,672 

45,000 

Omaha,  Neb, 

102,555 

150,000 

Erie,  Pa. 

52,733 

68,000 

Passaic,  N.J. 

27,777 

38,500 

Evansville,  Ind. 

59,007 

65,000 

Paterson,  N.J. 

105,171 

130,000 

Fall  River,  Mass. 

104,863 

115,000 

Pawtucket,  R.I. 

39,231 

44,500 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

45,115 

65,000 

Peoria,  111. 

56,100 

85,000 

Galveston,  Tex. 

37,789 

40,000 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

1,293,697 

1,500,600 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich 

87,565 

120,000 

Pittsburg,  Pa. 

321,616 

600,000 

Harrisburg,  Pa. 

50,167 

85,000 

Portland,  Me. 

50,145 

60,000 

Hartford,  Conn. 

79,850 

106,000 

Portland,  Ore. 

90,426 

265,000 

Hoboken,  N.J. 

59,364 

75,000 

Providence,  R  I 

175,597 

211,000 

Holyoke,  Mass. 

45,712 

52,000 

Quincy,  111. 

36,252 

42,000 

Houston,  Tex. 

44,633 

90,000 

Reading,  Pa. 

78,961 

110,000 

Indianapolis,  Ind. 

169,164 

250,000 

Richmond,  Va. 

85,050 

115,000 

Jacksonville,  Fla. 

28,429 

65,000 

Rochester,  N.Y. 

162,608 

200,000 

Jersey  City,  N.J. 

206,433 

250,000 

Sacramento,  Cal. 

29,282 

4(5,000 

Johnstown,  Pa. 

35,936 

38,000 

Saginaw,  Mich. 

42,345 

65,000 

Juliet,  111. 

29,353 

35,200 

St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

102,979 

125,000 

Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

24,404 

45,000 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

575,238 

750,000 

Kansas  City,  Kan. 

51,418 

68,000 

St.  Paul,  Minn. 

163,065 

235,000 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 

163,752 

300,000 

Salem,  Mass. 

35,956 

38,500 

Knoxville,  Tenn. 

32,637 

36,000 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah     53,531 

100,000 

Lancaster,  Pa. 

41,459 

45,000 

San  Antonio,  Tex. 

53,321 

100,000 

Lawrence,  Mass. 

62,559 

85,000 

San  Diego,  Cal. 

17,700 

45,000 

Lincoln,  Neb. 

40,169 

50,000 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 

342,782 

400,000 

Little  Rock,  Ark. 

38,307 

65,000 

Savannah,  Ga. 

54,244 

80,000 

Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

102,479 

300,000 

Schenectady,  N.Y. 

31,682 

80,000 

Louisville,  Ky. 

204,731 

275,000 

Scranton,  Pa. 

102,026 

130,000 

Lowell,  Mass. 

94,969 

110,000 

Seattle,  Wash. 

80,671 

300,000 

Lynn,  Mass. 

68,513 

88,000 

Sioux  City,  Iowa 

33,111 

63,000 

Maiden,  Mass. 

33,664 

39,000 

Somerville,  Mass. 

61,643 

75,000 

Manchester,  N.H. 

56,987 

70,000 

South  Bend,  Ind. 

35,999 

38,000 

Memphis,  Tenn. 

102,320 

175,000 

Spokane,  Wash. 

36,848 

100,000 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 

285,315 

400,000 

Springfield,  111. 

34,159 

68,000 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

202,718 

310,000 

Springfield,  Mass. 

62,059 

83,000 

Mobile,  Ala. 

38,469 

65,000 

Springfield,  Ohio 

38,253 

60,000 

Montgomery,  Ala. 

30,346 

(50,000 

Superior,  Wis. 

31,091 

45,000 

Nashville,  Tenn. 

80,865 

150,000 

Syracuse,  N.Y. 

108,374 

130,000 

Newark,  N.J. 

246,070 

320,000 

Tacoma,  Wash. 

37,714 

110,000 

New  Bedford,  Mass. 

62,442 

100,000 

Terre  Haute,  Ind. 

36,673 

50,000 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

108,027 

150,000 

Toledo,  Ohio 

131,822 

195,000 

New  Orleans,  La. 

287,104 

375,000 

Topeka,  Kan. 

33,608 

50,000 

Newton,  Mass. 

33,587 

39,000 

Trenton,  N.J. 

73,307 

100,000 

New  York,  N.Y. 

3,437,202 

4,425,000 

Troy,  N.Y. 

60,651 

78,000 

Norfolk,  Va. 

46,624 

80,000 

Utica,  N.Y. 

56,383 

72,000 

Oakland,  Cal. 

66,960 

100,000 

Washington,  D.C. 

278,718 

340,000 

APPENDIX 


209 


Waterbury,  Conn. 
Wheeling,  W.  Va. 
Wilkes-Bar  re,  Pa. 
Williainsport,  Pa. 


Popula- 
tion 1900 


45,859 

38,878 
51,721 

28,757 


Esti- 
mated 
Popula- 
tion 1909 

55,000 
40,000 
55,000 
39,000 


Esti- 

Popula- 

mated 

tion  1900 

Popula- 
tion 1909 

Wilmington,  Del. 

70,508 

90,000 

Worcester,  Mass. 

118,421 

145,000 

Yonkers,  N.Y. 

47,931 

73,000 

Youngstown,  Ohio 

44,885 

55,000 

Longest  Rivers 


L 

ENGTH   IN 

Mii.es 

Mississippi  (ir 

eluding 

Missouri) 

4,200 

Platte 

Missouri 

3,000 

Connecticut 

St.  Lawrence 

2,200 

James 

Arkansas 

2,170 

Potomac 

Colorado 

2,000 

Sacramento 

Rio  Grande 

1,800 

Susquehanna 

Columbia 

1,400 

Delaware 

Ohio 

975 

Hudson 

Length  in 
Miles 
900 
450 
450 
400 
400 
400 
300 
300 


Highest  Mountains 


Mt.  Whitney,  Cal. 
Mt.  Rainier,  Wash. 
Mt.  Shasta,  Cal. 
Longs  Peak,  Col. 
Pikes  Peak,  Col. 


:igiit  IN 

Height  in 

Feet 

Feet 

14,900 

Fremont  Peak,  Wyo. 

13,790 

14,530 

Mt.  Hood,  Ore. 

11,220 

14,440 

Mt.  Mitchell,  N.C. 

6,710 

14,270 

Mt.  Washington,  N.H. 

6,290 

14,147 

Mt.  Marcy,  N.Y. 

5,344 

INDEX   AND   PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


KEY  TO   PRONUNCIATION 

a,  as  In  fat;  a,  as  in  fate;  a,  as  in  far;  3,  as  in  fall;  e,  as  in  pen;  g,  as 
in  mete;  e,  as  in  Tie/-;  *,  as  in  pi*;  I,  as  in  pine;  o,  as  in  not;  o,  as  in  note; 
o,  as  in  move;  g,  as  in  *w& ;  «,  as  in  mute;  u,  as  injwfl;  p,  as  in  get;  g,  as 

in  gem;  c,  as  in  ca£;  c,  as  in  ce««. 

A  double  dot  under  a  or  o  (a,  o)  indicates  that  its  sound  is  shortened  to 
that  of  u  in  but. 

Italicized  letters  are  silent.  The  sign  '  tells  upon  which  syllable  the  ac- 
cent is  placed.     The  numbers  refer  to  pages  in  the  book. 


Ad-i-ron'-dack  Mountains,  84. 

Agriculture,  .37,  180. 

Al-a-ba'-ma,  114. 

Al'-ba-ny,  86. 

Al'-ka-ll,  171. 

Allegheny  (al'-e-ga-ni),  64. 

Almonds  (a'-munds),  185. 

An-a-con'-da,  180. 

An'-thra-cite,  59. 

Ap-pa-la'-chi-an  Mountains,  3,  4. 

Ar-i-zo'-na,  160,  171,  174,  200. 

Ar'-kan-sas,  154. 

Asbury  (az'-be-ri)  Park,  85. 

Ashe'-vilte,  121. 

At-lan'-ta,  120. 

At-lan'-tic,  74. 

At-lan'-tic  City,  85. 

Aw-gus'-ta,  Ga.,  120. 

A?/-gus'-ta,  Me.,  46. 

Bai'-ti-more,  42,  51,  81. 
Ban'-gor,  46. 
Bar  Harbor,  85 
Barley,  144. 
Bath,  46. 


Bay  City.  147. 
Beaumont  (bo'-mont),  114. 
Bellows  (bel'-oz)  Falls,  46. 
Ben'-zine,  67. 
Big  Trees,  186,  198. 
Bir'-ming-ham  (ber),  114. 
Bi-tti'-mi-nous  coal,  59. 
Black  Hills,  127. 
Blizzards,  134. 
Block  Island,  86. 
Bos'-ton,  49,  80. 
Boulders  (bol'-ders),  27. 
Brad'-ford,  70. 
Buf'-fa-io,  150,  158. 
Buf'-fa-loes,  126. 
Butte,  179. 
Butter,  40,  143. 


Cal-i-for'-ni-a.  36,  1 
184,  186,  187,  198. 
Cal'-u-inet,  153,  155. 
Cape  Cod,  33. 
Cape  May,  85. 
Car-bon-if'-e-rous  Age 
Cats'-kiHs,  84. 
210 


0,  173,  175,  180, 


5S. 


INDEX   AND   PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY      I'll 


Cattle.  139.  140.  141.  142. 

Cel'-lu-loid,  138. 

Central  States,  121,  183. 

Charles'-ton,  S.C.,  110,  119,  120. 

Chat-ta-noo'-ga,  110,  114. 

Chau-tau-qua  (sha-ta'-kwa),  146. 

Cheese,  40.  143. 

Ches-a-peakf '  Bay,  50,  51,  76. 

Cheyenne  (shl-en'),  186. 

Qhi-ca '-go.  141.  142.  157. 

Chi-nese',  16,  173.  176. 

Qin-cjw-na'-ti,  163.    . 

Cities.  ::. 

Clams,  50. 

Cleve'-land,  158. 

Coal,  57,  148. 

Coastal  Plain.  5.  94. 

Codfish,  50. 

Coke.  62.  14S. 

Col'-o-ni' »,  16,  17. 

Col-o-ra'-do,  176,  198. 

Col-o-ra'-do  Plateau,  166. 

Col-o-ra'-do    River,    166,    184,    200, 

aoi. 

Col-o-ra'-do  Springs,  196. 
Cd-luin'-bi-a  Plateau.  166. 
Cd-luin'-bi-a  River.  166.  171.  1 
C6-lum'-bus.  ] 
Concord  (kong'-kord),  56. 
Congressional  Library.  B2. 
Con-nect'-i-eut. 
Con-nect'-i-cut  River,  33. 
Copper.  151,  152,  163,  179.  180. 
Corn.  134.  107.       - 
Cor-o-na'-do  Beach.  19-3. 
Cotton.  97. 
Cotton  gin,  98. 
Cotton  manufactures.  34,  36. 
Cotton,  sea-island.  101. 
Cotton -seed,  101. 
Counties.  18. 
Crys'-tal-llne  rock. 
Qy-clon'-ic  storms,  10. 
Cypress,  110. 


Dairying.  143. 

Dal'/as,  114. 

Dan'-vilte.  42. 

Dead'-wood.  164. 

DeP-a-ware,  42. 

Del'-a-ware  Bay,  81. 

Delta,  133. 

Den'ver.  172,  180,  186,  195. 

Desert,  170,  181. 

De-troit'.  1-37. 

District  of  Columbia,  20,  81. 

Drowned  Valley  >. 

Duluth  (do-loth'),  147.  1 

Dur'-rtam,  114. 

E'-rie  Canal    ' 
E'-rie  Lake.  33,  123. 

Es'-tfi-a-rits.  J 
Eureka  (u-re'-ka),  191. 
Ev'-ans-vilte.  1( 
Ev'-er-glad^,  95. 

Fall  Line,  120. 
Fall  River,  36.  37. 

Far'-go.  164. 

-4. 
Fishing.  47. 
Flax.  145. 
Flood  plain.  131. 
Flor'-i-da.  96,  112. 
Flor'-i-da  Keys.  95. 
Flour.  138.  161. 
Forests.  43.   107.  146,  186,  187,  188, 

189,  190. 
Forest  regions.  190. 
Forest  reserves,  190. 
Fort  Worth.  114. 
Fun'-dy.  Bay  of.  7". 

Gal'-ves-ton.  118.  119. 
Garden  of  the  Gods,  198,  202. 
G&'-ry,  169. 

Gas'-o-line  (len),  67. 


212      INDEX   AND   PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


114. 


Geor'-gi-a,  101,  102,  112,  11 

Gey'-ser  (gl),  199,  200. 

Gla'-ciers  (shers),  21. 

Gloucester  (glos'-ter) ,  49,  56. 

Gold,  173,  177. 

Government,  17. 

Grand  Banks,  47. 

Grand  Canon  (kan'-yon),  200,  201 

Grand  llapids,  147. 

Granite,  53,  114. 

Grape  fruit,  184. 

Grapes,  184. 

Great    Central    Plain, 

134. 

Great  Lakes,  128,  145,  156. 
Great  Plains,  5,  128,  140. 
Great  Salt  Lake,  171,  172. 
Green'-land,  24. 
Green  Mountains,  84. 
Gulf -port,  119. 

Halibut  (hol'-i-but),  50. 

Hart'-fprd,  37. 

Hat'-te-ras,  Cape,  96. 

Ha-va'-na,  112. 

Ha'-ver-ftill,  37. 

Ha-wai'-ian  (yan)  Islands,  105. 

Hel'-e-na,  180. 

Hemlock,  45. 

Hemp,  146. 

Hol'-yoke,  46. 

Hood,  Mt.,  168,  203. 

Hops,  181. 

Hot  Springs,  121. 

Hud'-son  River,  76. 

Hydraulic  (hl-dralMk)  mining,  177. 

Ice  Age,  25. 
Ice'-bergs,  24. 
Ice  Sheet,  21,  127,  128. 
I'-da-ho,  167. 
Il-li-nois',  155. 
Im-pe'-ri-al  Valley,  184. 
In-di-an'-a,  155. 


In-di-an-ap'-o-lis,  163. 
In'-di-an  corn,  134,  137,  138. 
In'-di-an  Reservations,  13,  174. 
In'-di-an  River,  113. 
In'-di-ans,  12,  174. 
I'-o-wa,  124. 
Iron,  61,  148. 

Irrigation,  181,  182,  183,  184,  186. 
Ish'-pem-ing,  150. 


Jack'-son-vh7e,  110. 
Jap-an-ese',  16,  -175,  1* 
126,    128,    Jetties,  110. 
Jop'-lin,  155. 


Kan'-sas,  154. 

Kan'-sas  City,  Kan.,  141,  162,  164. 

Ka-taft'-din,  Mt.,  46,  54. 

Ken-tuck'-y,  111,  113,  143,  146. 

Kerosene,  68. 

Key  West,  111,  121. 

La  Crosse,  147. 

Lakes,  28. 

Lan'-cas-ter,  42. 

Lar'-a-m/e,  186. 

LaSilUe,  16. 

Lau-ren'-ti-an  (shi-an)  Plateau,  5. 

Lead,  154. 

Lead'viUe,  179,  180. 

Lemons,  184. 

Lev-ees',  116,  117. 

Limestone,  52,  55,  155. 

Linseed  oil,  145. 

Live  stock,  139. 

LZa'-no  Ks-ta-ca'-do,  113. 

Lobsters,  50. 

Long  Branch,  85. 

Long  Island,  33. 

Longs  Peak,  172. 

Los  An'-ge-les,  173,  194. 

Louisiana  (lo-e-zi-an'-a),  112. 

Lou'-is-viUe  (lo),  164. 

Loio'-elZ,  37. 


INDEX   AND   PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY      213 


Lumber,  44,  107. 
Lynchburg  (linch'-berg) ,  42. 

Mackerel,  50. 

Ma'-con,  110,  120. 

Maine,  43,  76,  84. 

Manufacturing,  30. 

Marble,  54,  114. 

Mariposa  (mar-e-po'-za)  Grove,  198. 

Marthas  Vineyard,  75,  86. 

Maryland  (mer'-i-land) ,  93. 

Mas-sa-chu'-seMs,  36. 

Mem '-phis  (fls),  110. 

Mer'-ri-mac,  37. 

Mex'-i-co,  Gulf  of,  93. 

Mich'-i-gan  (inish),  146,  148,  152. 

Mich'-i-gan,  Lake,  125. 

Mil-waw'-kee,  147,  157. 

Mining,  176. 

Min-we-ap'-o-lis,  138,  147,  160,  161. 

Min-ne-so'-ta,  128,  146,  148. 

Mis-sis-sip'-pi,  112. 

Mis-sis-sip'-pi  Basin,  118,  130. 

Mis-sis-sip'-pi   River,    129,    130,   132, 

133. 
Mis-sow '-ri,  154. 
Mis-sow'-ri  River,  130. 
Miteh'-ell,  Mt.,  91. 
Mo-bile'  (bel),  110,  119. 
Mo'-hawk  River,  79. 
Mon-ta'-na,  161,  179. 
Mont-gom'-er-y,  110,  120. 
Moose'-head  Lake,  84. 
Mo-raine',  22. 
Mor'-mons,  182. 
M5'-qui  (ki)  Indians,  174. 
Mount  De-serf,  85. 
Mules,  113,  143. 

Nan-tuck'-et,  75,  m. 
Nar-ra-gan'-seU  Bay,  76,  86. 
Navajos  (nav'-a-hSs),  174. 
Naval  stores,  108. 
Navel  oranges,  185. 


Ne-bras'-ka,  124. 
Negroes,  15. 
Ne-va'-da,  36,  171. 
New  Bed'-ford,  37. 
New  England,  30,  76. 
New'-found-land,  47. 
New  Hamp'-shire,  84. 
New  Ha'-ven,  37. 
New  Jersey  (jer'-zi),  42,  76.  85. 
New  Mex'-i-co,  173,  174. 
New  Or'-le-ans,  115,  117. 
Newport  (nu'-port),  86. 
New  York  City,  65,  78. 
New  York  State,  39,  41,  42. 
Nl-ag'-a-ra  Falls,  86. 
Nor'-fpZk,  51. 
North  Amer'-i^ca,  2. 
North  Car-o-li'-na,  111,  112. 
North  Da-ko'-ta,  161. 
Northeastern  Section,  30. 

Oak,  110. 

Oak'-land,  192. 

Oats,  144. 

Ocean,  70. 

Og'-den,  196. 

O-hi'-o,  155. 

O-hi'-o  River,  131,  132. 

Oil,  65. 

Oil  City,  70. 

Ok-la-ho'-ma,  14,  114. 

O'-ma-ha,  141,  162. 

On-ta'-ri-o,  Lake,  33. 

Oranges,  112,  113,  184. 

Or'-e-gon,  170,  180,  186,  187. 

Osh'-kosh,  147. 

Ox'-bow  loops,  133. 

Oysters,  50. 

O-zark'  Mountains,  127. 

Palm  Beach,  121. 
Pal-met'-to,  110. 
Pan-a-ma'  Canal,  195. 
Paper,  45. 


214      INDEX   AND   PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


Paio-tuck'-et,  37. 
Peanuts,  112. 
Penw-syl-va'-ni-a,  39. 
Pen-sa-co'-la,  109,  110,  119. 
Pe-o'-ri-a,  138. 
Pe-tro'-le-um,  67. 
Phil-a-del'-phi-a,  65,  80. 
PhilMp-pine  Islands,  105. 
Phosphate  (fos'-fat)  rock,  114. 
Pied'-mont  Belt,  91,  120. 
Pikes  Peak,  172,  202. 
Pineapples,  113,  121. 
Pitts'-burg  (berg),  60,  149. 
Placer  mining,  177. 
Pon£-char-tram',  Lake,  116. 
P5rt'-land,  Me.,  33. 
Port'-land,  Ore.,  192,  203. 
Por'-to  Ri'-co  (re),  105. 
Po-to'-mac  River,  33. 
Pottery,  154. 
Prai'-rks,  123,  128. 
Prov'-i-denge,  33,  37. 
Prov'-inge-town,  51. 
Prunes,  184. 

Pueblos  (pweb'los),  174,  180. 
Pu'-get  Sound,  191,  193. 

Quarries,  53. 
Quincy  (kwin'-zi),  56. 
Quicklime,  55,  56. 
Quicksilver,  180. 

Rain,  8. 

Rainfall,  11,  169. 
Rangeley  (ranj'-li)  Lakes,  84. 
Rainier  (ra'-ner),  Mt.,  168. 
Rec-la-ma'-tion  centers,  184. 
Red  River  Plains,  135. 
Refineries,  106. 
Resin,  108. 
Rhode  Island,  36. 
Rice,  102. 
Ro-an-5ke',  65. 
Roch'-es-ter,  70. 


RockMand,  56. 

Rocky  Mountains,  3,  197. 

Rut'-land,  55. 

Sac-ra-men'-to,  196. 

Sac-ra-inen'-to  River,  185,  191. 

Sag'-i-naw,  147. 

St.  AP-bans,  Vt.,  42. 

St.  A?<'-gus-tine  (ten),  121. 

St.  Joseph,  143. 

St.  Louis  (lo'-is),  141,  160. 

St.  Marys  Canal,  159. 

St.  Paul,  160,  161,  162. 

Sa'-lem,  33. 

Salmon  (sam'-un),  192,  193. 

Salt,  65,  69. 

San  Diego  (de-a'-go),  195. 

Sandstone,  52,  155. 

San  Fran-cis'-co,  173,  191,  192. 

San  Joaquin  (san  ho-a-keen')  River, 

185. 
San  Jose  (san  ho-sa'),  196. 
San  Pe'-dro,  194. 
San-ta  Bar'-ba-ra,  173,  196. 
San'-ta  F6'  (fa),  176. 
Sar-a-to'-ga,  86. 
Sa-van'-na^,  100,  109,  110,  119. 
Schuylkill  (skol'-kil)  River,  80. 
Scran'-ton,  60. 
Se-at'-ae,  193. 

Sequoia  (se-kwoi'-a) ,  186,  198. 
Shas'-ta,  Mt.,  168. 
Si-er'-ra    (se)    Ne-va'-da    Mountains, 

197. 
Silver,  178,  179. 
Sfoux  City,  163. 
Snake  River,  171. 
South  Car-o-H'-na,  101. 
South  Da-ko'-ta,  1(51. 
Southern  States,  91. 
Span'-iard  (yard),  15,  173. 
Spo-kane',  196. 
Spo-kane'  River,  196. 
Spring'-field,  37. 


INDEX   AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY      215 


Steel,  63. 
Stock'-ton,  196. 
Stock  yards,  142. 
Stones,  52. 

Strat'-i-fied  rock,  153. 
Sugar,  102,  103. 
Su-pe'-ri-or,  147. 
Su-pe'-ri-or,  Lake,  125. 
Swine,  141. 
Syr'-a-cuse,  69,  70. 

Ta-co'-ma,  193. 

Tarn '-pa,  121. 

Tar,  108. 

Ten-wes-see',  111,  113. 

Tex'-as,  15,  96,  102,  113. 

Tide,  72. 

Timber,  146. 

Tobacco,  39,  42,  111,  146. 

Troy,  65. 

Tucson  (to-son'),  180. 

Turpentine,  108,  109. 

U'-taft,  171,  182. 

Vas'-e-line,  67. 
Ver-mont',  39. 
Vir-gin'-i-a,  111,  112. 
Vol-ca'-noes,  168. 

Walnuts,  185. 
Wal'-tham,  37. 


Wa'-satch  Mountains,  182. 
Wash'-ing-ton  (wosh),  D.C.,  20,  81. 
Wash'-ing-ton  State,  170, 180, 186, 187. 
Wash'-ing-ton,  Mt.,  54. 
Waterfalls,  29,  146. 
Wa'-ter-town,  46. 
Wa'-ter-vilZe,  46. 
Waves,  70. 
Weather  Bureau,  11. 
Wes'-ter-ly,  56. 
Western  Section,  166. 
West  Vir-gin'-i-a,  32. 
Wheat,  134,  135,  136,  180,  185. 
Wheel'-ing,  65,  70. 
White  Mountains,  84. 
Whit'-ney,  Mt.,  194. 
Wilkes-Barre  (wilks'-bar-e),  60. 
WiWa'-mette  lliver,  192. 
Wil'-liams-port,  46. 
Wil'-ming-ton,  42,  65. 
Wis-con'-sin,  146,  148,  154,  161. 
Worcester  (wus'-ter),  37. 
Wy-o'-ming,  167. 

Yel'-low-stone    National    Park,    126, 

127,  199,  200. 
Yo-sem'-i-te  Lake,  198. 
Yo-sem'-i-te  River,  198. 
Yu'-ma,  186. 

Zinc,  154. 


Al5770<o& 


Lib- 


